INDEX

SR. NO. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. TOPIC Introduction Potential evapotranspiration Construction of lysimeter Installation Calculations Daily routine Record of observations References PAGE NO. 3 4 6 8 10 11 12 13

Introduction:Most weather stations record rainfall but few measure evaporation despite it being an important parameter in climatology. What happens to rainfall once it has reached the ground also is of interest to ecologists, hydrologists and water engineers. With modern automatic instrumentation it is relatively straightforward to calculate evaporation and is done so by professional hydrologists and others. Some weather enthusiasts use the Piche evaporimeter exposed within their thermometer screen to measure evaporation. Evaporation can be measured, at a site which also measures rainfall, by using a lysimeter which gives additional information on soil water balance. This webpage describes the construction and use of the classical lysimeter and is based on an article by the author published in a Bulletin of the Climatological Observers. Evaporation tanks or pans are expensive, even if space was available at the average weather station. The Piche evaporimeter is more popular, but can be subject to frost damage and observations (usually mls of water evaporated) are not usually translated into data to compare with rainfall. The lysimeter, measuring potential evapotranspiration, is an apparatus which can be constructed from readily available do-it-yourself (DIY) materials for less than Rs 2500. If you like a hands-on approach and like making things then read on, this is for you.

Potential evapotranspiration:Potential evapotranspiration (PE) is what would be evaporated from a surface if water was never a limiting factor. PE can be calculated using empirical formulae, from the simple needing only temperature, to complicated ones requiring several observations (eg that of 2 Penman or 3 Thornthwaite were among the first). Alternatively PE may be calculated as the difference between two easily measurable quantities. These quantities are the input and output of water in a system, which may be anything from a large water catchment area to a small container. Among the earliest attempts to measure evaporation were those of Dr Dobson in Liverpool between 1772 and 1775. Dr Dobson used two well-tarnished tin vessels of 12 in (30 cm) diameter; one of which was to serve the purposes of a raingauge and the other an evaporating vessel. A Mr J Dalton and his friend Thomas Hoyle made observations, from 1795 to the turn of the century, of the water balance of England and Wales. They used an apparatus resembling a transpirometer, for measuring evaporation (transpiration) of plants. These methods all involve measurement of evaporation by difference, the subtraction of one quantity from another. Early observations were somewhat inaccurate and difficult to interpret, but in the 1960's, the late Frank Green did 3

much to standardise the method and set up a national network of stations measuring PE. In 1972 at least 19 stations were being operated by staff of the then Nature Conservancy, 7 by other organisations and 6 in Ireland. From 1958 data were published for several years in British Rainfall. Green's lysimeter was made from two 40 gallon oil drums, 22 in diameter. One drum cut in half was the tank the other, full size, the receiving vessel. Some of these stations may still be operating such as the one built in 1963 by Father Ambrose Lambert at Downside Abbey. The metal drums, although painted with bitumastic paint, tended to rust and eventually leaked if the soil was acidic particularly in peaty sites in mountain areas. The measurement of PE (Fig. 1) includes that moisture evaporated to the atmosphere from plants and soil. If the soil is kept moist (at or near field capacity so that water is not limiting) by the addition of water, and well covered by vegetation (a grass sward is ideal) evapotranspiration is controlled by the weather and is largely independent of the amount (biomass) of the vegetation. If the soil and vegetation is confined within a small tank (the lysimeter) and measurements are made of the water input (Rainfall R and Additional water A) and output (Percolated water P) collected in the receiver (Fig. 2), then PE can be estimated from the equation: PE = R + A P

Construction of lysimeter:Materials: The lysimeter was made from readily available materials (Table 1). The tank was a black plastic builders' bucket (30 cm diameter and 25 cm deep). Choose the type which does not have a spout. The buckets are slightly tapered, vertical sides would be preferable. The black plastic used appears to be stable in light. I have had several in use in the garden and exposed to light for many years without deterioration (some plastics will become brittle exposed to light). The receiving vessel was a discarded plastic 25 litre emulsion paint container (30 cm x 42 cm). The size (depth) of the tank and run of drainage pipe will determine the depth required for the receiver. The receiver must be deeper than the tank and be capable of holding the largest rainfall you can expect at your site. Sufficient space must be available in the bottom to allow collection of the percolated water. Another discarded container (5.5 litre capacity), holding about 80 mm rainfall, forms a large collecting vessel. While any size container for the tank could be used, with appropriate calculations, the 30 cm tank has proved satisfactory. If you have the space and can excavate larger holes in the ground it would be possible to use some types of plastic waste bins. I chose brass compression joints for the plumbing because I preferred a mechanically strong joint (these and the alkathene pipe are used for domestic water supply and last in the ground for years). It is possible that some of the newer plastics available for domestic piping (not waste pipes) also would be suitable. Table 1. Parts list for construction of a small lysimeter 1. Builders bucket (black) nominal 3 gall (14 l) approx 32 cm x 20 cm without spout, top diameter was 30 cm when top cut off (1.50) 2. Discarded emulsion paint container plus lid (No cost); or, a beer fermenting bin and lid available from Boots is the correct size nominal 5 gall 30 cm x 35 cm (6.50) 5

3. Brass tank connector (outer thread) 15 mm (2.62) 4. Brass tank connector 22 mm (outer compression to inner thread) (3.37). You may require an extension on the inner side to make sure that the percolate drips into the receiving vessel. (Not costed) 5. Brass elbow 22 mm Conex (thread to compression) to fit connector no. 3 (6.67) 6. 2 Heavy pipe inserts (0.74 ea) 7. Alkathene tube approx 19 mm OD (diameter varies slightly with make), 3 m (2.00) 8. Poly washers (0.12 ea) 9. Leak sealant (Fernox) 50 ml tube (3.08) and some PTFE tape (Not costed) 10. Collection vessels. Discarded nominal 5 and 1 litre tile cement or other similar DIY containers with handles (No cost) 11. Old coat hanger reformed as a hook to retrieve the collection vessel (No cost) 12. Kitchen litre measuring jug (1.60), or better a 13. 500 ml (in steps of 5 ml) measuring cylinder. These are difficult to find in the shops, if you want one try a laboratory suppliers such as Philip Harris Scientific, Lynn Lane, Shenstone, Lichfield WS14 0EE (Tel: 01543 482242). Cat No. C90-114 10.09 + postage +VAT. You may find that some other combination of plumber's fittings will do the same job, ask at your builders merchant or DIY store if in doubt. Tools required: Adjustable spanners (2 necessary) for tightening the brass joints, a hand drill and tank cutting bit (I used the serrated type) and a small saw to cut the alkathene tube and the top of the bucket. Assembly: Remove the handle of the bucket and carefully cut off the top lip with a saw ensuring a straight cut. A drain tube was made from 19 mm OD alkathene tube, connections were brass compression joints (Figure 3). 6

Installation:Decide on the location (choose a level piece of ground) near but not too close to the raingauge. Cut and remove the turf. Select a good piece for the lysimeter, keep to one side and do not allow it to dry out. Holes were excavated to receive the tank and receiver and a narrow trench dug between. Distance apart is not important (suggested minimum 2 m). There should be a slight fall between tank and receiver to allow drainage. Remove the soil leaving the bottom on which the tank rests undisturbed so that sinking will be minimized. Place the tank in position and level off about 1 cm above the surrounding soil surface packing underneath if necessary. Place some small stones around the drain hole and cover with 2-3 cm of 0.5 cm gravel. Use the cut off top of the bucket as a template to shape the piece of turf to be used for the 7

lysimeter. While any soil can be used to fill the tank, a moderately free-draining soil is best; heavy clay or peaty soils may not be suitable. I used the local soil which is a moderately draining brown earth. The turf should have a good growth of grasses (or cover of the local vegetation), and associated species which may include moss, so that when looked at from above hardly any soil can be seen. Pack the tank above the gravel and below the turf with soil. Arrange that the turf inside the tank is a minimum of 2 cm below the lip but at the same level as the surroundings. In areas subject to high and/or intense rainfall the soil level should be proportionally lower. I found it useful to use strips of strong polythene sheet (c 10 cm x 100 cm) for support when trial fitting the turf. This enables removal for addition of more soil if the initial level is incorrect. The receiver is best placed with its top about 5 cm above ground so that surface water cannot enter. Pack soil around the apparatus, relay turf and apply water to bed in the turf and settle the soil when construction is complete. Measurements can begin in a few days. Within a few weeks my lysimeter was indistinguishable from the surrounding grass sward and giving reliable results. I have had to mark its position with small pegs to enable it to be easily located! The grass is cut with a hover mower, usually weekly during the growing season, a height of 3-5 cm above soil surface is ideal.

Daily routine:Measure the water percolated P in mls at the same time as rainfall (09 GMT in the UK). An amount of water A should be sprinkled on to the lysimeter such that there is some percolation (50 to 100 mls) each day. The amount necessary will vary according to the time of year and weather conditions. In dry weather more will be required to maintain an adequate soil moisture level. If necessary more water can be added later in the 8

day if the amount of percolated water is inadequate. If significant rainfall has occurred, and percolation is taking place, it may be unnecessary to add water. Percolated water can be recycled to minimize loss of nutrients. Record the condition of the grass surrounding the lysimeter: 0 = hardly any difference; 1 = less growth, almost as green; 2 = much less green; and 3 = brown and parched. If covered with snow, or if frozen, the lysimeter should be left to thaw naturally, any percolate should be measured in the usual way but do not apply irrigation water.

Calculations:British rainfall measurements usually are made in a standard 5 in (127 mm) diameter gauge, although other diameters are in use. Rainfall observations are now returned as mm of rain, previously inches were used. The calculations below are based on the 5 in standard British gauge and the modern mm measurement. The calculations with modification could be used determine factors for any size of raingauge and lysimeter tank. Percolate volumes to mm The amount of water added A and percolate P must be converted to give standard readings in mm, as for rainfall. The best method is to use a laboratory type measure calibrated in litres and subdivided by 5 ml increments to measure the water added and percolate in mls and then apply a conversion factor. If unavailable you could use a kitchen measure calibrated in litres and mls for large volumes and/or a standard 5 in raingauge measure for smaller. Conversion factors are, however, necessary. To find the dividing factor to convert mls to mm calculate the area of the tank in cm2 and divide by 10. Thus for a 30 cm diameter tank of radius (r) of 15 cm Factor = (r2 x pi) /10 = (15 x 15 x 3.142) / 10 = 706.95/10 = 70.7 To convert standard 5 in raingauge measures (mm) to read

Calculation of PE percolate from a 30 cm diameter lysimeter (mm) calculate the dividing factor as area (cm2) of lysimeter/ area of raingauge Factor = 706.95/126.69 = 5.6 Therefore, 10 mm and 50 mm rain measures will hold respectively 1.8 mm and 8.9 mm of lysimeter percolate. In both cases a lookup table using the above factors could be constructed instead of calculating. Prepare a record as shown in the example in Table 2. The values should be thrown back to the previous day to correspond with rainfall. I use a spreadsheet for entry of daily readings of water added, rainfall and percolate. The spreadsheet does all the calculations necessary and produces monthly and annual totals. It can also be used to calculate PWS, PWD and PWB.
Table 2. readings Example extract from spreadsheet showing the daily lysimeter

for part of April 1977 at Llansadwrn, Anglesey _____________________________________________________________________________ ______________ Water added + Rain = Total Percolate PE PWS PWD *(mls) (mm) (mm) (mm) *(mls) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) _____________________________________________________________________________ ______________ 1 300 4.2 4.2 8.4 290 4.1 4.3 -0.1 2 290 4.1 10.7 14.8 680 9.6 5.2 5.5 3 0 0.0 1.5 1.5 130 1.8 -0.3 1.8 4 130 1.8 4.3 6.1 370 5.2 0.9 3.4 5 200 2.8 7.8 10.6 408 5.8 4.9 2.9 6 0 0.0 3.7 3.7 318 4.5 -0.8 4.5 7 318 4.5 0.0 4.5 230 3.3 1.2 -1.2 8 300 4.2 14.7 18.9 680 9.6 9.3 5.4 9 0 0.0 0.3 0.3 153 2.2 -1.9 2.2 10 153 2.2 0.4 2.6 115 1.6 0.9 -0.5 11 250 3.5 0.6 4.1 175 2.5 1.7 -1.1 12 250 3.5 2.1 5.6 190 2.7 2.9 -0.8 ____________________________________________________________________________ Apr 6884 97.4 83.3 180.7 7882 111.5 69.2 34.0 -19.9 14.1 _____________________________________________________________________________ ______________ * For a 30 cm diameter tank volume (mls) is divided by 70.7 to obtain mm

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Record of observations:Records of PE at Llansadwrn began in May 1996. Observations are published monthly in the Bulletin of the Climatological Observers Link and on these webpages. Some data (Fig. 4) were presented in the Bulletin of the Climatological Observers Link 5. The figure shows the month-by-month PE between 1997 and 2000; the upper and lower curves show the maximum and minimum values recorded, while the central curve shows the monthly mean values. Mean monthly PE varies from 6 mm in January to 86 mm in May. The highest PE was 138 mm recorded in May 1999. The annual mean for the 4 years was 517 mm; the highest was 675 mm in 1988 and the lowest 249 mm in 2000.

Sometimes negative values appear in the months November to February. There are 2 mains reasons why these occur, both because of the net calculation. First, the method depends on an accurate rainfall measurement and what is measured in the 11

raingauge may not be that which reaches the lysimeter. This can be obviated by having a ground level gauge that in some locations can measure of the order of 5% more rainfall. Secondly, the lysimeter also collects dew and melted frost that the raingauge does not. A combination can account for the negative values at a time when PE is low. During months when PE is larger the relatively smaller rainfall inaccuracy and dew depositions are not easily seen in the monthly data.

References:1: PERKINS, D. F. (1996).The lysimeter: A robust alternative apparatus to the Piche evaporimeter. Bulletin, Climatological Observers Link., 317, 42-45. 2: PENMAN, H. L. (1948). Natural evaporation from open water, bare soil and grass. Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A., 193, 120-145. 3: THORNTHWAITE, C. W. (1948). Geograph. Rev., 38, 56. 4: GREEN, F. H. W. (1960). A technique for measuring potential evaporation and some of its applications. Water & Water Eng., December, 3-8. 5: PERKINS, D. F. (2001). Lysimeter PE. Bulletin, Climatological Observers Link., 371, 41.

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