HANDOUT # 2 EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Earth’s Subsystems

To support life, the earth is a closed system, with a dynamic body with many separate, but highly interacting parts or
spheres. Earth system science studies Earth as a system composed of numerous parts, or subsystems. These subsystems
interact to carry out many different natural processes. These various processes are happening due to the
composition and the nature of these subsystems.

The Geosphere
The geosphere is the part of the earth which includes the internal structure, rocks and minerals, landforms and all the
corresponding physical processes on the land that dynamically move and shape the surface of the earth. Both continental
land and ocean floor are also a part of the geosphere. And to sum it up, the solid ground of the Earth. The term
Geosphere covers all the solid part of the Earth, from its surface up to the deeper depth of the core, as opposed to the term
Lithosphere which only covers the crust.

The Internal Structure of the Earth

The interior structure of the Earth is composed of different layers, with each layer can be differentiated by its density,
thickness, and overall properties. Based on your grade 10 earth and space lessons, we can recall that the geosphere has 3
main layers, namely the crust, the mantle, and the core. The crust varies from 5 to 70 km thick, composed of both the
oceanic and the continental crust. Most of the crust is composed of eight elements, namely oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The layer that separates the crust to the next layer and is still part of the
crust is the Mohorovicic discontinuity, or simply referred to as the Moho. It was discovered by the Croatian seismologist
Andrija Mohorovicic (1857 – 1936) in 1909. The Moho is now recognized as the transitional boundary between the crust and
the mantle.

Below the crust is the mantle. It is the thickest portion of the geosphere and is discovered to be 84% of the earth’s total
volume. Majority of the mantle is solid rock, however seismologists discovered that there is a weak viscous sublayer known
as the Asthenosphere. This fluid layer explains the occurrence of earthquakes and seismic activities for it drives the motion
of the continental and oceanic plates due to the convection currents (movement of molten rock due to heat
and pressure). The extreme temperature and pressure in the asthenosphere cause the rocks in it to break and melt and
eventually move like a fluid. The rocks above it in the rigid portion of the crust move about on top of this
fluid like layer, which enables tectonic plates to move.

The mantle is mostly made of silicate rocks. There are limited discoveries regarding the mantle but because of volcanic
eruptions, some rocks beneath the earth called Xenoliths give clues to what the inside of the earth is like. When volcanoes
erupt some rocks are mixed in the pyroclastic materials and these rocks originate beneath the
earth surface and go outside with lava. Like between the crust and the mantle, the lower mantle and outer
core also have a boundary. This is called the Gutenberg Discontinuity which was named by its discoverer, Beno Gutenberg
(1889-1960) in 1913.

The core is the last layer of the earth, and it is composed mostly of iron and nickel. The iron in the outer core is in a liquid
form while it is theorized that the inner core is solid. This layer that is composed of iron is responsible for the magnetic field
of the earth, that deflects the solar winds and cosmic radiation that could make life on earth impossible. There is also a
transitional boundary between the outer and the inner core. It is called the Lehmann Discontinuity and it was discovered in
the year 1929 by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann while studying an earthquake from New Zealand as she studied
shockwaves that reached to the core and then bounced off to boundary. The Geosphere continues to move as we thrive on
it and the process in this subsystem directly affects the planet as we know it.

The Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water found in planet earth such as
• Water found on the surface of our planet includes the ocean as well as water from
lakes and rivers, streams, and creeks.
• Water found under the surface of our planet includes water trapped in the soil and
groundwater.
• Water found in our atmosphere includes water vapor.
• Frozen water on our planet includes ice caps and glaciers.
The Importance of Water
1. Water could be in solid, liquid and gas. Because of its ability to flow, water can travel to different environments and
reach different organisms. As it travels it can be a factor to distribute different nutrients and other materials for
organisms to survive
2. Water, in its pure form, has a neutral pH. Since pure water is apotheric (both an acid and a base) and has neutral pH
(neither basic nor acidic) it can be readily available to different organisms without harming their body chemistry.
3. Water is a good conductor of energy. Water can absorb and transfer heat, and water is the major contributor in the
heat regulation of the planet.
 4. Water has a high specific heat. The high specific heat of water enables organisms to adapt to the changes in the
atmospheric heat.
5. Water is the universal solvent. Many of the known solutes in the environment essential to life are mostly dissolved
in water.
The Water Cycle
Water travels and circulates around Earth in different ways. The processes that allow water to circulate around the world is
dependent on the interaction of matter and energy that allows it to transform from one phase to another. Due to this cycle,
life is possible since all organisms are dependent on water. Water in the hydrosphere moves in a Hydrologic cycle. The
movement can be in the form of water evaporating to form clouds, clouds that form precipitation, water on ice caps that
freeze and melt, and even groundwater that seeps into the cracks and crevices of the ground. Again, when the water
reaches the atmosphere, it can go back to the ground and the cycle continues. Distribution of water on Earth
 Water on earth can be divided into two groups, surface water and groundwater, which is determined by their types
and amount of minerals in them.
 Surface water may either be freshwater or marine water
 Marine has high salinity (salt content) and can be found in seas, oceans, bays, and gulfs.
 Freshwater has low salinity, and can be found in lakes, rivers and springs, and because of its slow salinity, it is the
best source of drinking water.
 Only 2% of the world’s water is freshwater, but 70% of freshwaters are frozen in glaciers.
 Groundwater is water found below the ground where they are stored in spaces and crevices within the soil. The
underground layer of rocks containing water is called an aquifer.
The Atmosphere
Once upon a time in Earth’s history, the planet’s atmosphere was once like the gases of the solar nebula from which the
earth was from. But as time went on, the earth’s atmosphere eventually changed its primitive characteristics, and
now as we know it, the atmosphere is composed of gases that were released from the earth’s surface and traces of comets
and other planetary objects that were captured in this envelope of air. The composition of the atmosphere changes, as the
earth evolves. The present atmosphere of the earth is composed of 78% Nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon and 0.1%
other gases such as CO2, argon, and neon.
Layers of the Atmosphere
The EXOSPHERE
It is the area beyond the atmosphere of the earth

The THERMOSPHERE
It is the outermost and the hottest layer of the atmosphere due to its absorption of high energy solar heat. There is a
location in it called the ionosphere where gas particles are charged by the solar wind. ‘ Charged gas molecules allow
radio waves to travel beyond horizon. Auroras, a spectacular display of colorful lights, are effects of refracted solar
wind in this layer.

The MESOSPHERE
The layer below the thermosphere which is also the coldest part of the atmosphere. This layer is important in protecting
the earth from planetary debris

The STRATOSHERE
The air in this layer has strong steady horizontal wings advantageous for long distance flights The Ozone layer is found
in this atmosphere layer and is vital to all living things because it absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun

The TROPOSPHERE
The densest layer of the atmosphere The movement of the air and the influence of temperature determines
our weather based on the movement of water vapor and the cycle of air due to the temperature of the surface

The Biosphere is the “life zone” of the Earth and includes all living organisms (including humans), and all organic matter
that has not yet decomposed. The Biosphere is where certain organisms function to consume other organisms to allow
energy to flow from one group of organisms to another and to allow certain organic molecules to
be recycled.

Producers such as plants can harvest radiant energy to convert it to a chemical form, and certain consumer animals consume
them. Decomposers eventually decompose or break down dead organisms to return their organic molecules allowing it to be
reabsorbed into the earth.

Energy is transferred from one organism to another in a food chain. A food web is composed of interconnected food chains
that involve different organisms. However, the more organisms are inside this food web, the less energy could be obtained
by the last consumer. The energy pyramid illustrates how energy is reduced as an organism consumes another
organism. Specifically, only 10% of the energy can be obtained by the organisms and is divided further by as the trophic level
advances to another level.
Ecosystems are where food webs exist and where both biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) things interact to drive the
system. Ultimately, the Biosphere can be considered a macro-ecosystem interacting with the rest of the subsystems on
earth.

The nitrogen cycle is the way nitrogen moves through the air, soil, plants, animals, and back to the air.

Steps in the Nitrogen Cycle:

1. Nitrogen Fixation
o Nitrogen gas (N₂) from the air cannot be used by plants directly.
o Special bacteria in the soil or in plant roots (like beans and peas) change nitrogen gas into a form plants
can use (like ammonia or nitrates).
2. Assimilation
o Plants absorb the usable nitrogen from the soil.
o Then, animals get nitrogen when they eat the plants (or eat other animals).
3. Ammonification
o When plants and animals die or release waste, nitrogen goes back into the soil as ammonia.
4. Nitrification
o Other bacteria in the soil convert ammonia into nitrates, which plants can use again.
5. Denitrification
o Some bacteria change nitrates back into nitrogen gas and release it into the air, completing the cycle.

Why It’s Important:

Nitrogen is needed to make proteins and DNA in all living things. Without the nitrogen cycle, plants and animals (including
humans) wouldn't get the nitrogen they need to grow and live.

The carbon and oxygen cycle shows how carbon dioxide (CO₂) and oxygen (O₂) move between living things and the
environment.

1. Photosynthesis
Plants take in carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the air and use sunlight to make their food. During this process, they release oxygen
(O₂) into the air. Plants breathe in CO₂ and breathe out O₂.
2. Respiration
Animals and humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide when they use energy. Humans and animals
breathe in O₂ and breathe out CO₂.
3. Decomposition
When plants and animals die, decomposers (like bacteria and fungi) break them down, releasing carbon back into the soil
and air.
4. Combustion (Burning)
When we burn fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and gas), carbon dioxide is released into the air.

Why This Cycle Is Important:

It helps balance the amount of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air.
It supports life processes like breathing and photosynthesis.
Helps control climate by regulating CO₂ levels in the atmosphere.

The Interactions of the Earth’s Subsystems

Earth: A Closed System

The earth can be considered a closed system because the earth may release energy but there is negligible mass leaving the
system.

EARTH IS A DYNAMIC BODY

If you study the earth, you can say that the planet is a dynamic body with separate parts, yet the parts are interacting with
each other. The subsystems mentioned in the previous lesson have definite features, yet they are not isolated from each
other, and they move in a complex and perpetually interaction that make the earth an Earth System.

EARTH IS ALSO PART OF A SYSTEM

A system is a group of interdependent/interacting parts that form a complex whole. We may consider the earth to be part
of the solar system, which in turn can be a subsystem in reference to the Milky Way Galaxy.

ALL SUBSYSTEMS ARE INTERCONNECTED

The parts of the earth’s system are linked in such a way that an abrupt change in one part produces a change in another
part, or in all other parts. A Volcanic eruption can change a body of water, cause change in the atmospheric condition and
the biological activity in an area.

EARTH’S PROCESSES COVER DIFFERENT TIME AND SPACE SCALES

The span covered by the Earth system’s processes vary from microscopic distances to thousands of kilometers, and these
processes can even range from a split of a second to billions of years. All the systemic processes of the Earth are very much
connected despite significant differences in distance and time, wherein ultimately a change in a single component can
influence change.

THE EARTH SYSTEM IS POWERED BY ITSELF AND THE SUN

The Earth system is powered by an external energy source which is the sun, and an internal source from the Earth’s internal
heat. The sun directly influences the processes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and the earth’s surface. Processes such as
weather and climate, ocean currents and even exogenous processes such as erosion are driven by energy from the Sun. On
the other hand, heat remaining from the formation of the planet, and the continuous radioactive decay, power the internal
processes such as volcanic movement and endogenous processes such as movements of the earth’s tectonic plates.

HUMANS ARE PART OF THE EARTH SYSTEM

Humans are an integral part of the system, wherein both living and nonliving processes are intertwined and
interdependent. Therefore, our actions as humans produce changes in the environment. The way we burn fossil fuels and
dispose of our garbage have critical consequences to the planet itself. Humans must continue to be stewards of
preservation and sustainability of the Earth.

Recent Advancements and Discoveries

1. Planetary Exploration
Mars Missions
 NASA’s Perseverance Rover (2021–present): Searching for signs of ancient microbial life and collecting rock samples
for future return.
 China’s Tianwen-1 Mission (2021): First Chinese mission to orbit, land, and deploy a rover (Zhurong) on Mars.
 ESA’s Rosalind Franklin Rover (expected launch 2028): Will drill below Mars' surface to look for biosignatures.
Moon Exploration
 NASA’s Artemis Program: Plans to return astronauts to the Moon by 2025 and establish a sustainable presence.
 India’s Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Successfully landed near the Moon’s south pole — a key area for water ice
exploration.
 2. Dwarf Planets and the Kuiper Belt
 Pluto (New Horizons Mission, 2015): Provided first close-up images showing mountains, ice plains, and possible
cryovolcanoes.
 Arrokoth (2019 flyby): Most distant object ever visited; suggests slow, gentle formation of Kuiper Belt objects.
3. Moons of Jupiter and Saturn
 Europa (Jupiter's moon): Europa Clipper (2024 launch) will investigate its subsurface ocean and potential for life.
 Titan and Enceladus (Saturn’s moons): Evidence of liquid oceans and organic chemistry; NASA’s Dragonfly drone
mission (launch 2028) will explore Titan.
4. Exoplanets and the Search for Life
 James Webb Space Telescope (JWST, launched 2021):
 Observing atmospheres of exoplanets.
 Discovered water vapor, methane, and carbon dioxide in distant planets' atmospheres.
 TESS (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite):
 Identifies Earth-sized exoplanets in habitable zones.
5. Asteroids and Planetary Defense
 DART Mission (2022): First successful attempt to deflect an asteroid (Dimorphos) — key step in planetary defense.
 OSIRIS-REx (2020–2023): Collected samples from asteroid Bennu and returned them to Earth in 2023 for analysis.
6. Sun and Space Weather
 Parker Solar Probe (launched 2018): Traveling closer to the Sun than any spacecraft before, gathering data on solar
winds and coronal heating.
 Solar Orbiter (ESA-NASA mission): Providing high-resolution images of the Sun’s poles and magnetic activity.

Relevance of These Advancements

 Understanding planetary evolution and potential habitability.
 Developing technologies for future human space exploration.
 Protecting Earth from asteroid threats.
 Inspiring innovation in communication, robotics, and energy systems.

 Understanding how these systems interact was made possible through the work of scientists over time.
Notable Contributors to Earth System Science

1. James Hutton (1726–1797) – Father of Modern Geology

Proposed the idea of Uniformitarianism – the Earth was shaped by slow, continuous processes over long periods.
Introduced the concept of the rock cycle and Earth's dynamic nature.
2. Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) – Continental Drift Theory
Proposed that continents were once joined as a supercontinent (Pangaea). Laid the foundation for plate tectonics, a key
part of geosphere understanding.
3. Harry Hess (1906–1969) – Seafloor Spreading
Discovered that new ocean crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and spreads [Link] the idea of moving tectonic
plates.
4. John Tyndall (1820–1893) – Greenhouse Effect
Discovered that certain gases (CO₂, water vapor) trap heat in the atmosphere. Helped explain the interaction between the
atmosphere and climate.
5. Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) – Climate and CO₂
Calculated how changes in carbon dioxide could affect Earth's temperature. Pioneered the study of climate change.
6. Rachel Carson (1907–1964) – Environmental Awareness
Wrote Silent Spring, which exposed the dangers of pesticides. Promoted the idea of the interconnectedness of Earth
systems (especially humans and biosphere).
7. Lovelock and Margulis (1970s) – GAIA Hypothesis
Proposed that Earth functions as a self-regulating system, like a living organism. Emphasized the interaction of biosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere.
8. Charles Keeling (1928–2005) – Measuring CO₂ Levels
Created the Keeling Curve, which shows the rising levels of CO₂ in the atmosphere. Provided strong evidence of human
impact on the Earth system.

Performance Task Title:

“Hazard Watch: A Community Survey on Hydrometeorological Risks”

Task Description:
You are a student-researcher tasked to assess the risks your local community faces from hydrometeorological hazards (e.g.,
tropical cyclones, floods, landslides, heavy rainfall, storm surges).
As a group or individual:
Design a simple survey or conduct a community risk study (using interviews, maps, local news, and historical data).
Identify the types of hydrometeorological hazards your area is prone to.
Analyze factors that increase vulnerability (e.g., low elevation, poor drainage, high population density).
Recommend action plans or solutions that the community can implement to reduce risk.
Present your findings in a report and/or visual presentation (poster, brochure, infographic, or PowerPoint).
Suggested Output Options:
Report or Research Poster
Infographic or Brochure
Short Video or PowerPoint Presentation
Community Hazard Map with annotated risks

Rubric for the Performance Task:

Criteria Excellent (10 pts) Proficient (8 pts) Developing (6 pts) Beginning (4 pts)
Information is complete,
Mostly accurate with Some information Many inaccuracies
Content Accuracy accurate, and well-
minor errors. missing or unclear. or lacking content.
researched.
Well-designed, relevant,
Adequate design with Basic design with limited Poor or no design
Survey/Study Design and clearly explains
minor flaws. clarity. shown.
methodology.
Clearly identified multiple Identified a few hazards
Identified most hazards, Hazards are unclear
Hazard Identification local hazards with with minimal
some detail lacking. or not identified.
evidence. explanation.
Insightful analysis with Analysis is clear; Analysis or
Analysis & Basic analysis with vague
strong, realistic recommendations are suggestions missing
Recommendations recommendations.
recommendations. useful. or not useful.
Creative, neat, and
Clear visuals with some Visuals are basic or Poor or no visuals
Presentation/Visuals engaging visuals; easy to
creativity. cluttered. presented.
understand.
Collaboration & Excellent teamwork and Most members
Uneven contribution. Poor collaboration.
Organization (if group) role distribution. contributed equally.
Total: /60 points

🔧 Tools and Materials:

Survey forms / online survey tools (Google Forms)
Mobile phones or tablets (for interviews or photos)
Community hazard maps
Reference materials (local disaster history, LGU risk maps, PAGASA website)