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Chapter 3

Farm Irrigation Practices

Suitability of Irrigation Methods

• The factors which determine the suitability of any
method of irrigation are:
• local conditions (soil type - its permeability & water
storage capacity; land topography, climate, water
availability & water quality),
• crop type,
• type of technology,
• previous experiences,
• required labour inputs etc.
• Good yield of crops can be obtained from irrigated
land only if the water is applied judiciously to meet
the needs of the plant.
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Surface Irrigation
• Surface irrigation is the oldest and widely used
method of water application to agricultural land. •
The term 'surface irrigation' refers to a broad
class of irrigation methods in which water is
distributed over the field by overland flow. • A flow is
introduced at upper edge of the field which covers
the field gradually.
• The water front advance is dependent largely on
the differences between the inflow onto the field
and the accumulating infiltration into the soil.
3

Physical Systems
• The primary purpose of the physical system is to
supply water to an area for crop production and
it consists of four subsystems.
1. The water supply subsystem
2. The water delivery subsystem
3. The water use subsystem
4. The water removal subsystem

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Fig.: Typical irrigation physical system components. 5

1. Water Supply Subsystem

• The sources of water for supply to the water
supply subsystem include both surface and
subsurface water resources.
• The water supply sub-system constitute mainly
reservoirs, river diversions, ponds, tanks, open
wells and pumping of groundwater.

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 2. Water Delivery Subsystem
• The function of water delivery sub-system is to
convey good quality water in adequate quantities
from the source to the fields through main canal,
distributaries, minors and field channels.
• The flow in the delivery system is regulated using
several structures (gate, turnouts, valves etc.). •
Water delivery system is designed to reduce seepage
and erosion.

3. Water Application Subsystem

• The output from water delivery sub-system is the
input for water application sub-system.
• Water application system deals with on farm
irrigation.
• Water available at field is applied using either
surface or pressurized irrigation methods. • The main
function of this system is to distribute the desired
amount of water to field to provide favourable
environment for crop production while ensuring
minimum environmental damage.
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 4. Water Removal Subsystem
• This sub-system is used for removal and disposal of
surface and sub- surface waters from the fields to
facilitate agricultural operations and crop growth.
• The functions of this subsystem are as follows: • To
provide proper root aeration by lowering ground water
table.
• To maintain appropriate salinity levels within the soil
profile.
• To dispose (remove) excess irrigation or rainwater from
the field.

Surface Irrigation Methods

• Surface irrigation methods refer to water application
through gravity flow to the cultivated land.
• Water is applied either the entire field (uncontrolled
flooding) or part of the field (furrows, basins, border
strips).
• For efficient application of water it is important to
select the method of irrigation which best suits the
crop and soil characteristics of the field.
• In doing so it may be essential to use more than one
method of irrigation in an area or a given farm.

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 Fig.: Different methods of irrigation on a farm. 11

Fig.: Irrigation Method can be broadly

classified into three categories.
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• Surface irrigation methods can also be divided

into the following two groups:
 • Uncontrolled Surface Flooding
• Controlled Surface Flooding

13

Uncontrolled Surface Flooding or

Flooding
• It consists of applying water to the field without any
bunds to guide the flow of water wetting the soil
surface completely.
• Generally it is practiced only when irrigation water
is abundant and where land levelling is not
followed.
• Sometimes it is also adopted in the initial stages of
land development.
• This method is most commonly used for irrigation
of crops sown by broadcasting method viz., rice,
low value pastures, lawns and millets etc.

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 Fig.: Wild flooding.

15

• Advantages:
1. No land levelling & land shaping
required 2. Low labour and land
preparation costs
3. Less skill required by irrigator

• Disadvantages:
1. Applied water is lost by deep percolation &
surface runoff
2. Low irrigation application efficiency

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 Controlled Surface Flooding
Basin Irrigation:
• In this method the field is divided into square or
rectangular plots of 4 to 4000 m² guided by
bunds on all the sides.
• In some cases (ring basin) the plot may also be
circular.
• This method is usually practiced in nearly
levelled lands and hence the depth of wetting is
more uniform in this method.

17

Basin Irrigation….
• However, it is particularly useful on fine textured
soils with low infiltration and percolation rates so
that the water is retained on the surface and in the
root zone for a longer period of time.
• The field channels supply water to each basin,
during which the basins are filled to desired depth
and water is retained until it infiltrates into the soil.
• This method is most commonly used for irrigating
crops like groundnut, finger millet, sorghum,
vegetable crops etc.

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• Basin irrigation is generally not suited to crops
which cannot stand in wet or waterlogged
conditions for periods longer than one day.
• These are generally tuber and root crops like
potato, cassava beet and carrot.
• Basins are also used for leaching salts below the
crop root zone depth by percolating water in
the reclamation of saline soils.

19

Basins are mainly of two types

• Check basin (square or rectangular in shape) •
Ring basin (circular in shape)

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Check Basin
• The size of check basins may vary from one meters
square, used for growing vegetables and other
intensive cultivation, to as large as one or two
hectares or more, used for growing rice under wet
land conditions.
• The shape and design of basins generally depends
on the topography of the area it is being designed
for.
• Check basins can be further divided into rectangular
and contour types.

21

Check Basin…..

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Check Basin…..
Advantages:
1. Water can be applied uniformly.
2. Even small streams can be used for irrigation of crops
efficiently.
 3. Simple and cheap when equipment is used for constructing
bunds

Disadvantages:
1. Unless the land is levelled, distribution of water in plot is
uneven.
2. Considerable area is lost under field channels and bunds i.e.
nearly 30% of area.
3. Bunds interfere in working of inter-cultivation equipment.
4. More labour is required for field layout and irrigation.
23

Ring Basin Method

• This method is a modification of check basin
method and is suitable for sparsely grown orchard
crops and cucurbits.
• In this method a circular bund is constructed
around each tree/plant or group of plants/trees to
create a basin for irrigation.
• These basins are suitably connected to irrigation
conveyance channels in such a way that either
each basin is irrigated separately or a group of
basins are irrigated at once by flowing water from
one basin to another through inter- connections.

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Ring Basin
Method
 25

Ring Basin Method

Advantages:
1. High irrigation application efficiency can be
achieved with properly designed system 2. Unskilled
labour can be used

Disadvantages:
1. High labour requirement
2. Bunds restrict use of modern machinery in the
field
3. Limited to relatively uniform lands

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Design Considerations (check basin)

• Check basins are necessarily rectangular or square
areas with bunds constructed around the area to
control the irrigation water.
• However for rolling topography the bunds are
constructed along the contours and are intersected
at definite intervals by cross ridges.
• The size of the area may vary widely (1 sq. m to 2
ha), based upon the crop, available water supply,
soil infiltration characteristics and other local
factors.
 27

• For soils with high infiltration capacity (loam and

sandy loam) large sized basins may prove to be
uneconomical and inefficient (in terms of irrigation
efficiencies).
• However for clay soils with lower infiltration rates
the size of the check basin can be increased. • The
height of the bund depends on the amount of water
to be retained while its width depends mainly on the
bearing strength of the soil.

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1. Layout
• In order to maximize the spacing between
supply channels it is desirable that the long axis
of the basin be perpendicular to the supply
channel or pipe line.

Fig. :Layout of check basin

irrigation system.
 29

2. Water Source Location

• It is desirable to choose a water source in the
central position of the filed to minimize the
construction of channel and pipes.
• Also keeping in mind the fact that the water
source should be in a position to facilitate the
gravity flow to the field channels.

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3. Terrain
• Level land facilitates the construction of
rectangular basin whereas in undulating
topography the basin shapes are generally
irregular.
• In case of high slopes terracing is done to obtain
level basins.
 31

4. Basin sizes
• Basin dimensions are generally determined by the
inflow stream size and the infiltration
characteristics of the soil.
• Longer basins can be designed for fine textured
soils whereas the basin size has to be kept small for
sandy soils.
• However local factors and previous experience play
a major role in the determination of basin size.`
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16

5. Basin Width
• The main limiting factor for basin width is the slope of the land.
• For higher slopes the width should be small or else huge amount of
earthwork would be necessary to level the land.
• The other factors which play an important role in the determination of
basin width are depth of fertile soil, method of basin construction and
agricultural practices.
33
Basin Width....
Slope % Maximum width (m)

average range

0.2 45 35-55

0.3 37 30-45

0.4 32 25-40

0.5 28 20-35

0.6 25 20-30

0.8 22 15-30

1.0 20 15-25

1.2 17 10-20

1.5 13 10-20

2.0 10 5-15

3.0 7 5-10

4.0 5 3-8 34

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From the above discussions the following conclusions can be

drawn:
Basins should be small if the
1. Slope of the land is high
2. Soil is highly permeable (sandy)
3. Inflow stream is small in size
4. Required depth of the irrigation is small
5. Field preparation is done by hand or animal traction.

Basins can be large if the

1. Slope of the land is gentle or flat
2. Soil has low infiltration rate (clay)
3. Inflow stream is large in size
4. Required depth of the irrigation application is large
5. Field preparation and intercultural operations are
mechanized.
35

6. Land Smoothening
• The levelling of the land by the removal of high
and low areas, which cause uneven infiltration,
is essential to achieve higher irrigation
efficiencies.
• The levelling of the land also facilitates the
construction of supply channels and farm roads.

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7. Stream Size
• For level basins the maximum non erosive
stream size should be used to achieve better
uniformity and minimum deep percolation
losses.

37

8. Irrigation Time
• Irrigation time is the infiltration opportunity time. •
It is calculated from the empirical equations to
calculate depth of infiltration noting that the
cumulative infiltration should be able to meet the
irrigation requirements.
• The level of water in the field may be maintained by
the use of check gates with the height of the
shutter adjusted to the required depth of
submergence.
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9. Inflow Time
• The time for which the water flows into the basin is
called the inflow time.
• This is selected to allow the desired depth of
infiltration taking place at the far end of the basin.
• In general this is the summation of the advance
time and the time required to deliver the volume
of water needed for adequate irrigation.
39

10. Ridge/Bunds Dimensions

• Bunds form an important part of any basin. •
Bunds are small earthen borders which contain
the irrigation water within the basin. • The height
of the bund is determined by the depth of
irrigation to be maintained within the basin.
• The width of the bund should be such that the
bund is stable.
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 Hydraulics of Check Basin
The irrigation event in the check basin can be
considered to have the following four phases. 1.
Initial Spreading of the Entrance Stream To Cover
The Full Width
• After the initiation of the stream into the field the
stream spreads along the width of the border till
the total width of the border is covered.
• The stream also advances along the slope during
this period.
41

2. Water Front Advance

• The water front advance takes place in almost
similar manner to that of border irrigation. • Land
slope, surface roughness, soil type and stream
size play the main role in determining the
advance characteristics of the water front.

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3. Water Storage
• The ponding of water begins once the water
reached the downstream end of the check
basin.
• The volume of water stored during a time
period is equal to the difference of the volume
admitted to the basin and the amount of
infiltration taking place.

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4. Recession of Water
• In case of check basin the recession of water
takes place due to infiltration and the empirical
infiltration equations can be used calculate the
time required for complete subsidence of
water.

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 •
Adv
anc
e
and
rece
ssio
n
curv
e 45

Border Irrigation Method

• In case of border irrigation, the field is divided into a
number of long parallel strips, generally 5 to 15 m in
width and 75 to 300 m in length separated by small
border ridges or low dykes of about 15 cm.
• Irrigation water is released into each strip connected
directly to irrigation channel situated at the upstream
end of the border strip.
• The sheet of water advances towards the downstream.
• After sufficient water is applied to one strip, the
irrigation stream is turned into another strip.

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Border Irrigation Method...

• A specific requirement in border irrigation is
that the longitudinal slope must be uniform,
and the transverse slope must be zero or
negligible (< 0.03%).
• This method is suitable for irrigating a wide
variety of close growing crops such as wheat,
barley, groundnut, bajra.

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Border Irrigation Method

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 Two types of borders
1. Straight Border
• These borders are formed along the general slope of
the field.
• These are preferred when fields can be levelled or be
given a gentle slope economically.
2. Contour Border
• These are formed across the general slope of the field
and are preferred when land slope exceeds the safe
limits.
• Based on the management strategy adopted, borders
can be grouped into three major categories which are
fixed flow, cutback and tail water reuse.

49

Border Irrigation Method

Advantages:
1. Large water streams can be used safely
2. Provides uniform wetting of soil profile
3. Low labour requirement

Disadvantages:
1. Requires relatively large water streams for quick
advance of water to minimize deep percolation losses
at the upper end of the border strip.
2. Wastage of water by deep percolation in coarse
textured soils.

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 Design Considerations
1. Layout
• The border strips are so located that a supply
channel or pipeline delivers water to the upper
end of the border.
• It is also suggested that the border strips are
constructed parallel to the filed boundary to
facilitate the intercultural operations.
• For long fields with soils having high infiltration
capacity more than one border strip should be
constructed along the entire length of the field.
51

2. Water Source Location

• It is desirable to choose a water source in the
central position of the filed to minimize the
construction of channel and pipes
• Also keep in mind the fact that the water source
should be in a position to facilitate the gravity
flow to the field channels.

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3. Border Strip Width
• Border strip widths suitable for any particular field
depend on:
(1) available stream size
(2) amount of cross slope that must be removed,
(3) kind of equipment used, and
(4) accuracy of land levelling as related to the normal depth of
flow expected.
• The width of a border usually varies from 3 to 15
meters, depending on the size of irrigation stream
available and the degree of land levelling practicable.

53

4. Border Strip Length

• Longer border strips are desirable to reduce the labour
and other operating costs.
• The aspect of uniformity and application efficiency of
the border strip should be kept in mind while
determining the length of the border.
• Long border strips are easier to farm operations than
short strips because fewer turns by farm equipment
are required.
• Soil type is the most important aspect which
determines the length of the border.
• Typical border lengths for different soils are given in
Table.
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Table: Recommended border length for different type of soil for
moderate slopes and small to moderate size irrigation streams
Type of soils Border length, (m)

Sand 60 to 90

Loamy sand 75 to 150

Sandy loam 90 to 250

Clay loam 90 to 300

Clay 180 to 350

55

5. Land Smoothening
• Land smoothening increases the efficiency by
eliminating any furrows in which the flow might
accumulate.
• Borders with zero cross slopes are preferred for
higher irrigation efficiencies however in undulating
terrain cross slopes might be present.
• While levelling the land the topography must be
studied carefully to economize the operation by
levelling the smaller slopes.
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• Border with cross slope 57

6. Stream Size
• The design stream size should be large enough to
spread adequate amounts of water across the length
and breadth of the border; however it should be non
erosive in nature.
• The design stream size should also result in rates of
advance and recession which are essentially equal. • The
size of irrigation stream needed depends on the
infiltration rate of the soil and the width of the border
strip.
• The depth of water applied to the soil can be regulated
by the size of the irrigation stream.

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• Stream size too small

59

• Stream size too large

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Table: Some typical values of stream sizes to suit varying soil

characteristics and border slopes
Soil Type Border Slope Flow per metre width
(%) of border strip, litre
per second

Sandy soil, infiltration rate 2.5 cm per 0.20-0.40 10-15

hour 0.40-0.65 7-10

Loamy sand, infiltration rate 1.8 to 2.5 cm 0.20-0.40 7-10

per hour 0.40-0.60 5-8
Sandy loam, infiltration rate 1.2 to 1.8 cm 0.20-0.40 5-7
per hour 0.40-0.60 4-6

Clay loam, infiltration rate 0.60 to 0.80 cm 0.15-0.30 3-4

per hour 0.30-0.40 2-3

Clay, infiltration rate 0.20 to 0.60 cm 0.10-0.20 2-4

per hour

61

7. Irrigation Time
• Irrigation time is the infiltration opportunity
time.
• It is calculated from the empirical equations to
calculate depth of infiltration.
• The cumulative infiltration should be able to
meet the irrigation requirements.

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8. Inflow Time
• The inflow time is selected keeping in mind that
the desired depth of irrigation be applied in the
far end of the border.
• The inflow time is calculated assuming that the
advance and the recession curves are parallel.

63

9. Border Ridge Height

• On non-cohesive soils, border ridges with a
settled height of more than20 cm are difficult
to construct and maintain without making
them excessively wide.
• In addition, where salinity is a problem, salt
can accumulate in the ridge crest.
• The higher the ridge, the more pronounced
the salt accumulation is likely to be.

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• Advanced and recession curves of border

irrigation

65

Furrow Irrigation Method

• Furrows are sloping channels dug in the soil with the
crops being planted on the ridges.
• It has advantage that water is applied only in furrows
instead of being applied on the whole field.
• This saves water.
• The plants do not come in direct contact with water. •
Advantage as some plants, like vegetable crops are very
sensitive to ponded water.
• Infiltration occurs laterally and vertically through the
wetted perimeter of the furrow thus the root zone of
the crops gets the desired moisture.

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67

Classification of furrow irrigation

• On the basis of their alignment furrows may be
classified into:
• straight furrows and
• contour furrows

• Based on their size and spacing furrows may be

classified as:
 • deep furrows and
• corrugations
• In general, small plants need small furrows; like
vegetables need furrows of 7.5 to 12.5 cm depth while
some row crops like orchards need much deeper
furrows.
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Straight furrow

69

contour furrow

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Corrugation system

71

• Corrugation irrigation consists of running water

in small furrows called corrugation which direct
the flow down the slope.
• Corrugations are V-shaped or U-shaped
channels about 6 to 10 cm deep, spaced 40 to
75 cm apart.

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 Furrow Irrigation
Advantages:
1. Fairly high irrigation application efficiency among
surface irrigation methods
2. Furrows serve as field drains in areas of heavy
rainfall 3. Low evaporation losses

Disadvantages:
1. Not suitable in coarse textured soils with high
infiltration rates
2. Possibility of intra-furrow soil erosion
3. Labour intensive

73

Furrow Irrigation Design

Considerations
• Efficient irrigation by furrow method is obtained
by selecting proper combination of spacing,
length, slope of furrows, suitable size of the
irrigation stream and duration of water
application.

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 1. Furrow Spacing
• Furrows should be spaced close enough to
ensure that water spreads to the sides into the
ridge and the root zone of the crop, to
replenish the soil moisture uniformly.

75

Recommended furrow spacing for different soil

types, and depths of irrigation for complete wetting
Soil type Depths of Furrow
irrigation (m) spacing (cm)

Sandy soil 1 to 1.5 50 to 60

Clay soil 1 to 1.5 100 or more

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2. Furrow Length
• The optimum length of a furrow is usually the
longest furrow that can be safely and efficiently
irrigated.
• Proper furrow length depends largely on the
hydraulic conductivity of soil.
• The length of furrow may be limited by the size
and shape of the field.

77

3. Furrow Slope
• Furrow slope controls the speed at which water
flows down the furrow.
• A minimum slope of 0.05% is needed to ensure
surface drainage.
• In general, the ranges of slope recommended
for borders apply to furrows also.

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4. Furrow Stream
 • The size of furrow stream usually varies from 0.5
to 2.5 litres per second.
• The maximum size of irrigation stream that can
be used at the start of the irrigation is limited
by considerations of erosion in furrows,
overtopping of furrows and prevention of
runoff at the downstream end.

79

• The maximum non-erosive flow rate in furrows

is estimated by the following
empirical formula: Where,

qm = maximum non-erosive stream, L/sec

s= slope of furrow expressed in percent

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• The average depth of water applied during
irrigation can be calculated from the following
relationship:

Where,
d = average depth of water applied, cm
q= stream size, L/s
t= duration of irrigation, h
w = furrow spacing, m
L= furrow length, m
81

# A non-erosive stream is applied for a period of

15 minutes in a furrow of 80 m long spaced 65
cm apart and having a slope of 0.15%.
Determine the average depth of water applied?

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Answer:
• In case of furrow irrigation non-erosive
stream, Where,

qm= maximum non-erosive stream, litres per

second
s= slope of furrow expressed as a percent 83

So,
In a furrow 4 L/s water is applied.

Average depth of water applied,

Where,
d = average depth of water applied, cm
q= stream size, Ls-1
t= duration of irrigation, h
w = furrow spacing, m
L= furrow length, m

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• Now,
 85

Sprinkler Irrigation System

• The sprinkler irrigation is one of the pressurized
irrigation methods.
• water is sprayed into the air and fall on the ground
surface somewhat resembling rainfall. • The spray of
water is developed by the flow of water under
pressure through small orifices or nozzles.
• The pressure created by the pump, which causes
the water to flow out through the sprinkler nozzle.
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Farmland sprinkler irrigation

87
• As water is not allowed to flow over land
surface, the water losses in the process of
conveyance and distribution are completely
eliminated.
• Hence compared to surface irrigation methods,
high irrigation efficiency is achieved in sprinkler
irrigation method of water application.

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Adaptability of Sprinkler Irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation system is adoptable to
following situations:
• Almost all types of soils and terrains. •
Successfully irrigate high permeable soils that are
difficult to irrigate using surface irrigation
methods.
• Lands with combination of shallow soils and
terrain that prevent proper land grading
smoothing.

89

• Lands having steep slopes and erodible soils and

 undulating terrain that would be too costly to
make smooth for use.
• Areas prone to frost and fog, this method can be
used to minimize their effect of frost and fog on
crop damage.

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Advantages
(i) Minimizes the water losses in the process of
conveyance and distribution.
(ii) Frequent application of water and depths matching
with the water requirement of crops. Therefore it is
possible to maintain the soil moisture in the root
zone of crops within allowable depletion level for a
specified type of soil.
(iii) As there is no overland flow, water is not moved on
land surface, this method is suitable for irrigating all
types of soils except very heavy clay.
(iv) It is suitable for oil seeds and cereal and vegetable
crops.

91
V. It is not necessary to overland flow by gravity
therefore expenditure of land levelling and
smoothening are not required done in surface
irrigation methods.
VI. There is no necessity of making bunds, ridges, field
channels etc. for ponding or guiding water. The
land used for these construction is saved and can
be used for crop cultivation.
VII. Due to high pressure requirement the nozzles are
less susceptible to clogging compared to drip
irrigation method.
VIII. Chemicals and fertilizers can be applied along with
water.
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IX. This method saves the fertilizers and other

nutrients as there is no deep percolation and
leaching.
X. The damage on vegetables, citrus, apple, mango,
litchi, and other fruit crops to fog, frost and high
solar radiations can be protected.
XI. High water use efficiency can be achieved with
proper planning and design of sprinkler irrigation
system.
XII. Plant protection chemicals can be applied to
distant part of plant, which is not possible in
other methods of irrigation.
93
 Limitations
I. High initial investment as compared to surface
irrigation methods.
II. The fine-textured soils which have a low
infiltration rate cannot be irrigated efficiently. III.
Sprinkler irrigation is not feasible in hot climate
and high wind areas, as major portion of water
will be lost through evaporation and water
distribution is affected due to high wind speed.
IV. High operational costs due to higher energy
requirements.
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V. Not suitable for crops that require ponding

water. However, research experiments on
paddy crops have given promising results.
VI. In humid regions, not suitable for crops prone
to diseases due to moist environment. [Link]
with impurities and sediments may damage the
system components.

95
Types of sprinkler irrigation system
On the basis water application the sprinkler
systems are classified into the following two
major types:
1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system.
2. Perforated pipe system.

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Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system

• Small size nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at
uniform intervals along the length of the lateral
pipe and the lateral pipes are usually laid on the
ground surface.
• They may also be mounted on posts above the crop
height and rotated through 90o, to irrigate a
rectangular strip.
• In rotating type sprinklers, the most common
device to rotate the sprinkler heads is with a small
hammer activated by the thrust of water striking
against a vane connected to it.
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 Rotating Head Sprinkler Irrigation System

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Perforated pipe system

• This method consists of drilled holes or nozzles
along their length through which water is
sprayed under pressure.
• This system is usually designed for relatively low
pressure (1 kg/cm2).
• The application rate ranges from 1.25 mm to 50
mm/hr for various pressures and spacing.

99

Perforated pipe system

 100

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Based on the portability, sprinkler systems are

classified into the following types:
1. Portable system:
• It has portable mainlines, sub-mains, laterals, and
portable pumping plant.
• The entire system can be moved from field to field. 2.
Semi-portable system:
• It is similar to a fully portable system except that the
location of the water source and pumping plant is
fixed.
• Such a system may be used on more than one field
where there is an extended mainline, but may not be
used on more than one farm unless there are
additional pumping plants.

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Portable system
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3. Semi-permanent:
• It has portable lateral lines, permanent mainlines, and a
stationary water source and pumping plant. • The
mainlines are usually buried, with risers (located at
suitable intervals) for connecting laterals.
4. Permanent system:
• A fully permanent system has buried mainlines, sub
mains, and laterals with a stationary pumping plant
and/or water source.
• Sprinklers are permanently located on each riser. • Such
systems are costly and are suited to automation.

103

5. Set-move irrigation systems:

• Set-move sprinkle systems are moved from one
set (irrigation) position to another by hand or
mechanically.
 • They remain stationary as water is supplied. •
When the desired amount of water has been
applied, the water is shut off and the sprinkler
laterals are drained and moved to the next set
position.
• When the move is complete the water is turned
on and irrigation resumed at the new set position. •
The sequence is repeated until the entire field has
been irrigated.

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6. Solid-set systems:
• A solid-set system has enough laterals and sprinklers to
irrigate the entire field simultaneously (although
simultaneous operation of all sprinklers usually occurs
only during frost protection).
• These systems can be portable, semi portable, semi
permanent or permanent. • Portable, semi portable and
semi permanent solid-set systems usually have
aboveground aluminum laterals that are placed in the
field at the start of the irrigation season and left until
harvest.
• Permanent systems have underground mainlines and
laterals with only the sprinklers and a portion of the
risers above ground.

105
 • Although it is possible to irrigate the entire field
simultaneously, the field is usually divided into
blocks of adjacent laterals.
• During irrigation water is switched sequentially
form block to block until the field is irrigated. •
Individual “prescription irrigations” for each block
are possible.

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7. Continuous-Move systems:
• Continuous-move systems have laterals and
sprinklers that remain connected to the
mainline and move continuously as water is
supplied.
• The popularity of these systems has steadily
increased as labour costs have risen and
shortages of labour for moving portable laterals
and sprinklers have continued.
i) Center pivot system
ii) Linear move system
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 1. Center pivot System

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2. Linear Move System

109

Components of Sprinkler System

A sprinkler system usually consists of the
following components:
1. A pump unit
2. Fertiliser application units and filters 3. Pipe
network- main/sub-mains and laterals 4.
Sprinkler head
5. Couplers, valves, risers, bends, plugs etc. 110

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Component of a portable sprinkler

irrigation system

111

i) Pumping Unit:
• The water from the source (ground water /
surface water) is pumped under pressure to
sprinkler system.
• The pressure created through pump forces
water through sprinklers or through
perforations or nozzles in pipelines and then
 forms a spray.

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• A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be

used for operating sprinkler irrigation to
individual fields.
• The driving unit of pump may be either an
electric motor or an internal combustion
engine.

113

ii) Fertiliser Application Unit:

• Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected into the
sprinkler system and applied to the crop. • The
fertilizer applicator consists of a sealed fertilizer tank
with necessary tubings and connections.
• A venturi injector is connected with the main line,
which creates the differential pressure to suck
fertilizer solution to flow in the main line.
• Filters: Filters are used to filter the suspended
particles and debris flowing with water.
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iii) Pipe Network:

• The pipe network consists of mains/submains and
laterals.
• Main line conveys water from the source and
distributes it to the submains.
• The submains convey water to the laterals which in
turn supply water to the sprinklers.
• Aluminium or PVC or HDPE pipes are generally used
for portable systems, while steel pipes are usually
used for center-pivot laterals.
• Asbestos, cement, PVC and wrapped steel are also
used for buried laterals and main lines.
115

iv) Sprinkler Head:

• Sprinkler head distributes water uniformly over the
field without generating runoff and loss due to deep
percolation.
• Types of sprinklers are rotating head or fixed type. •
The rotating type can be adopted for a wide range of
application rates and spacing.
• They are effective with pressure of about 10 to 70 m
head at the sprinkler.
• Pressures ranging from 16 to 40 m head are considered
to be the most practical for normal uses.

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Sprinkler head

117

iv) Couplers & Fitting Accessories:

• Couplers are used for connecting two pipes
and uncoupling quickly and easily.
• Essentially a coupler should provide:
a) a reuse and flexible connection,
b) not leak at the joint,
c) be simple and easy to couple and uncouple, and
d) be light, non-corrosive, durable.
• Fig shows different types of sprinkler fittings
 and accessories.

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Couplers & Fitting Accessories

a) Water meters:
• It is used to measure the volume of water
delivered in to the system.
• This is necessary to operate the system to
supply the required quantity of water. b) Flange,
couplings and nipples are used for proper
connection to the pump, suction and delivery.

119

c) Pressure gauge:
• It is used to measure operating pressure of
sprinkler system.
• The sprinkler system is operated at the pressure to
apply the desired depth of water and ensure
application uniformity.
d) Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly
valve and plugs are other components of a
sprinkler system. They are used as per
 requirements.
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Different fittings and accessories

121

Drip irrigation
• Drip irrigation also called as trickle irrigation is the
method of applying filtered water (and fertilizers
soluble in water) at a low discharge through the
emitters or drippers directly onto or in to the soil.
• usually small operating pressure (20 to 200 kPa or 1
to 2 kg/cm2) compared to the sprinkler irrigation
system.
• The discharge of the emitter varies from 0.5 to 12
lph depending on the soil type, discharge available
at the source and the area to be irrigated.
 122

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• A precise amount of water equal to daily

consumptive use or the depleted soil water that
change with crop growth stages and weather
conditions can be applied through drip
irrigation methods.
• In this method the soil water can be maintained
near to field capacity (or within allowable
depletion range) or at low tensions during the
entire crop growth period.

123

Micro irrigation
• The micro irrigation method is the low pressure
irrigation system that sprays, sprinkles, mists,
delivers or drips the water frequently at low
discharges onto or into the soil near the plant
roots and causing only partial wetting of the soil
surface.
• The other types of the micro irrigation methods
are micro-sprinkler, micro-jet, bubbler.

124
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Advantages of Drip Irrigation

• Improved Plant Growth and Crop Yield •
Labor & Saving
• Energy Saving
• Suitability to Poor Soils
• Weed Control
• Economy in Cultural Practices & Operations •
Use of Brackish/Saline Water
• Enhanced Fertilizer Application Efficiency
125

• No Soil Erosion
• No Land Preparation
• Minimum Diseases and Pest Problems •
Adaptability to Application of Mulches

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Limitations
• Initial Heavy investment:
• Extensive Maintenance Requirement: •
Salinity Hazards:
• Economic and/or Technical Limitations
• High Skill Requirements

127

Adaptability of Drip Irrigation

• The drip irrigation system is very popular in areas of
acute water scarcity due to its advantages in terms of
high water use efficiency.
• This method adoptable to almost all types of soil and
topography of land.
• Drip irrigation has been found to irrigate marginal soils
and terrain that otherwise not possible to irrigate by
other methods, Soils with high permeability and low
water holding capacity, such as sands, desert
pavement and least topical soils adopt poorly to
surface or sprinkler irrigation but can be irrigated
successfully with drip systems.
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• Drip irrigation has been proven to be an efficient

and effective technique for establishing vegetation
on steep slopes of abandoned mines, road
embankments etc.
• It is also suitable for irrigating slowly permeable
soils and irregular plots.
• Drip irrigation enables water to be applied with
high uniformity and may eliminate runoff and
overspray.
• Sub surface drip on turf grass and sports fields does
not interfere with the continuous use of area.
129

• Drip irrigation is adaptable for protected cultivation

in green house, shade net and low tunnels.
• It provides control application of water and
nutrients for each individual plant without foliage
wetting, which is an important feature for high
values crops such as flowers, potted plants and
green house vegetables.
• Drip irrigation is also suitable for vegetables grown
on plastic mulching under tunnels, such as
strawberries and early seasons melons and other
vegetable crops.
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• Saline and poor quality water can be more

safely used through drip irrigation than through
any other method of irrigation.
• It is well adapted to variety of row crops from
widely spaced fruit crops to closely spaced
vegetable crops and places where commercial
cultivation of cash or horticultural crops is
done.

131

Components of Drip Irrigation System

• Drip irrigation system components involve: • network
of pipes (main line, sub mains, laterals), • emitting device
called as drippers or emitters, • control head consisting of
pumps, filters and fertigation units; and
• other accessories such as valves, gages etc.
• The main line delivers water from water source
with the help of pumping device or elevated water
tank to the sub main and the sub mains to the
laterals.
• The emitters which are attached to the laterals
deliver water onto or into the soil for irrigation.
132

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Fig. Component and layout of drip irrigation system.

133

a) Pump and prime mover

• The pressure necessary to force water through
the components of the system including
fertilizer tank, filter unit, mainline, sub main,
laterals and provide at the emitters at the
desired pressure is obtained by a pump of
suitable capacity or the overhead water tank
located at suitable elevation.
• The pressure can be developed by using the
elevated tanks or pumps.

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 b) Water source
• Water sources such as river, lake,
reservoir/tank, well, canal water supply or
connection to a public commercial or
cooperative water supply network can be used.
• Drip irrigation is a pressurized irrigation
technology in which water is delivered from
these sources by increasing its internal energy
(pressure) by pumping.

135

c) Pipe network
Main Line
• Pipes of mainlines are usually made of poly vinyl
chloride (PVC) or high density polyethylene (HDPE).
• Recently, unplasticized PVC (uPVC) pipes are
manufactured with reduced sensitivity to ultra
violate (UV) rays and better endurance than
ordinary PVC pipes.
• HDPE pipes can be installed inside or above ground,
as they are impregnated with carbon black that
provides protection against UV.

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Submains
• Submains are installed underground (PVC or
HDPE) or above ground (HDPE only.)
• The pipes of diameter 32 mm or above and the
pressure rating of more than 2.5 kg/cm2 are
used for sub mainline.

137

Manifolds
• In certain circumstances, when rows are very
long or in rolling topography, sub-division of the
plot by submains is insufficient.
• In these cases secondary partition is carried out
by manifolds.
• Manifolds are used also to simplify operation
and to lower accessories costs.

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Laterals
• Laterals are the tubes on which the emitters are
mounted or within which they are integrated.
• They are usually made of low density polythene
(LDPE) or linear low density polythene (LLDPE)
with features such as flexibility, non
corrosivety, resistance to solar radiation and
temperature fluctuation and generally black in
color. Laterals usually have inner diameters in
the range of 12 to 20 mm with wall thickness
varying from 1 to 3 mm.
139

d) Control and Monitoring Devices

• Flow and pressure control valves are required
for controlling water distribution and regulating
pressure in the pipeline.
• The valves used in drip irrigation systems
include air release and vacuum relief valve,
pressure regulating valves, flow regulation
valves, non return valves and on hyphen and
hyphen off valves.

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 d) Emitting devices
• Emitters or drippers or the laterals integrated with
drippers/emitters and line source with drippers.
• Emitters, the core of micro irrigation system are
made of plastic material.
• Water passes through the emitters and need to be
delivered at constant and low with the desired
uniformity.
• The emitters are designed to dissipate pressure and
yield low discharge which does not vary
significantly because of minor differences in
pressure head.
141

• Based on the connection of the emitters to

lateral, the emitters can be classified as • on line
and
• integrated.
• The online emitters are mounted on the laterals
whereas the integrated
emitters are inserted in
the laterals.

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 Emitting devices

143

Criteria for Irrigation Method Selection

• The deciding factors for the suitability of any surface irrigation
method are:
• natural conditions (slope, soil type),
• type of crop,
• required depth of application,
• level of technology,
• previous experiences with irrigation,
• required labour input.
• Moreover the irrigation system for a field must be compatible
with the existing farming operations, such as: • land
preparation,
• cultivation, and
• harvesting practices.

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References
• [Link]
 [Link]?id=124858
• [Link]
[Link]?id=124862

145

Recommended furrow length for different soil types,

furrow slopes and depths of irrigation
Furrow Furrows length (m)
slope
(%) Slope type

Clay loam sands

Net depth of water application

7.5 cm 15cm 5 cm 10 cm 5 cm 7.5 cm 10 cm

0.05 300 400 120 270 60 90 150

0.10 350 440 180 330 90 120 190

0.20 370 470 220 370 120 190 250

0.30 390 500 280 400 150 225 280

0.50 380 500 280 370 120 190 250

1.0 270 400 250 300 90 150 220

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