Impact of microirrigation:

 Area covered 3.87 m ha

 An impact evaluation study on National Mission of microirrigation in 13 states was conducted.
The results indicated:
 8.4% increase in area under microirrigation
 Significant increase in area in horticulture crops
 Reduction in cost 32.3%
 Energy saving 31%
 Saving of fertilizers consumption – 28%
 Average productivity of fruits – 42.3%
 Average productivity of vegetables – 52.8%
 Average farmers income 48.5%

Potential of microirrigation and present status:

 There is potential of bringing about 42.2 million ha area under microirrigation in the country
 Out of this, about 30.5 million ha are suitable for sprinkler irrigation for cereals, pulses and
oilseeds, a part of fodder
 Drip irrigation has a potential of 11.7 million ha under cotton, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables,
spices, condiments, red gram
 Max actual area under drip in Maharashtra (0.48 m ha), AP (0.36 mha), Karnataka (0.18 m ha),
Gujarat (0.17 m ha), TN (0.13)
 Actual area under microirrigation – 3.87 mha in India i.e. 9.16% of total area under cultivation.

Future prospects of microirrigation:

 Irrigation water is a scarce and precious natural resource. Demand for good quality irrigation
water is increasing. In India, major part of irrigation area (about 90%) is under conventional
irrigation systems which has not only poor WUE but has also resulted in environmental
problems like water-logging and soil salinity thereby affecting crop yields.
 Micro-irrigation has a great potential to achieve higher cropping intensity and irrigation
intensity with a significant impact on resource saving, cultivation cost, soil health, crop yield and
quality and overall farm productivity.
 Higher adoption of microirrigation technologies in India in near future with further enhance crop
and water productivity for food, water and nutrition security and income of farmers and ensure
sustainability of agriculture.
 Microirrigation has covered about 3.87 mha in India and can be extended in an area of about 42
milion ha.
Microirrigation System

Definition: Application of irrigation water by pressurized irrigation system i.e. sprinkler,

microsprinkler and drip uniformly and efficiently. Close to the plants to provide a very favourable
moisture level in the soil. Irrigation water is applied to adequately wet rootzone of the crop.

Advantages

1. Water use efficiency (WUE) and fertilizer use efficiency is very high as compared to surface
methods.
2. Runoff and deep percolation losses are nil or negligible
3. Uniformity of application is very high
4. Popular in areas having water scarcity and poor quality of water.
5. Light and frequent irrigations can be applied and a healthy moisture regime can be maintained
in the root zone of crop leading to higher productivity and health good quality produce.
6. Complete control on timing and quantity of irrigation water to be applied.
7. Very useful particularly in undulating and uneven lands or very coarse textured soils.
8. No soil erosion
9. Best rusted for undulating and steep topography
10. Permits use of poor quality water.

Limitations

1. Requires high shill in design, installation and operation and technical support
2. High initial cost

Microirrigation systems (Pressurized Irrigation systems) includes:

1. Drip (both online and inline systems)

2. Sprinkler
3. Micorsprinklers
4. Rainguns
5. Bubblers
6. Biwall
7. Microjets

Constraints in implementation of microirrigation in India:

1. Lack of real time monitoring at state and national level.

2. Delay in release of long term govt. guidelines, subsides disbursement
3. The scheme is operational part of the year and not for 365 days
4. Absence of easy financing mechanisms for farmers
Drip Irrigation/Trickle Irrigation

 A component of microirrigation system

 Application of water directly near the rootzone of plant precisely where it is required with
discrete drops, continuous drops, or miniature sprays through mechanical devices called
emitters located at selected points along water delivery lines. E.g. In sugarcane, yield increase
reported under drip irrigation = 35% and water saving about 50% more than conventional
system
 No loss of water in conveyance application

Advantages

1. WUE very high 90-95%, minimum evaporation and deep percolation losses. Saving more water
and bringing more area under irrigation.
2. Best suited in water scarcity areas, where water quality is marginal, topography is undulating,
labour is expensive well suited for wide spaced, high value crops like coconut, grapes, bananas,
lime etc.
3. Increase in yield and quality and protected agriculture of produce
4. Reduced weed problem
5. Frequent irrigation keeps salt concentration within root zone below harmful level due to
continuous wetting of root zone
6. Application of fertilizer through (fertigation) and herbicides through (herbigation) possible
7. No soil erosion
8. Less incidence of pests and diseases

Limitations

 Requires high skill in design, installation and operation

 High initial cost
 Salt accumulation in soil

Components of drip irrigation system:

Head equipments

 Water source
 Pump or overhead tank
 Filter station
 Fertilizer application

Distribution system:

 Conveyance live – main lime, rubmains, lateals, emitters

 Drippers
 Valves
 Performance Indicator Conventional method of Drip method/Microirrigation
irrigation
Water saving Losses occur due to percolation, 40-70% water saving, losses nil
runoff and evaporation or negligible
WUF 30-35% 90-95%
Weed problem infestation High Very less
Pest and disease incidence High Relatively less
Efficiency of fertilizers use Low due to leaching and runoff Very high due to reduced loss of
losses nutrients through leaching and
runoff water
Water control Inadequate Very precise, high and easy
Soil erosion High Eliminates any possibility of soil
erosion
Water gravity driven Pressured irrigation system
Saving in labour Labour engaged per irrigation Labour required only to start and
high stop the system

Drip irrigation Sprinkler irrigation

WUF Reported upto 56% 90-95%
Pest and disease Less More
Frost protection No protection Protects crop from frost
Method of application By drops, precise application Water sprayed similar to rainfall
near root zone through nozzles
Saline water Marginal waters can be used Good quality waters used

Sprinkler Irrigation

This system sprinklers water in a manner similar to rainfall through nozzles so that runoff and
deep percolation losses are avoided and uniformity of application is quite high. The system consists of
sprinkled heads or nozzles which are mounted on risers in lateral lines taken from the mainline which is
further connected to a pumping unit.

The rate of spray of water is regulated and natural rainfall can be simulated. The method could
be introduced for a large number of crops depending upon the soil texture, slope, water resource and
farmers’ capacity for investment.

Advantages:

1. WUF can be much higher as 56% compared to surface method of irrigation

2. Higher application and distribution efficiency and saves considerable water
3. Provides complete control on timing and quantity of irrigation water to be applied
4. Consequence losses, runoff losses and deep percolation losses are minimum
5. Light and frequent irrigation can be applied and a healthy moisture regime can be maintained in
the root zone of the crop thus leading to higher level of production of good quality produce.
 6. Useful in water scarce areas and high value export oriented commercial crops like flowers,
vegetables and other horticulture crops.
7. Best suited for undulating and steep topography
8. Reduces erosion
9. Protects crops against frost and higher temperature
10. Fertilizers and other chemicals can be applies
11. No land is wasted in making bunds and channels
12. 40-60% saving in labour as compared to surface irrigation

Limitations

 Higher initial capital cost in installation

 Lack of technical expertise in its operation and maintenance
 More incidence of diseases and pests e.g. Karnael bunt disease more incidence in sprinkler
irrigation
 Not suitable for tell crops like sugarcane
 Poor quality water control be used
 Application efficiency is affected by high wind wpeed.

Micro-sprinklers:

The micro-sprinkler method of irrigation has advantages of both sprinkler and drip irrigation
methods. Water is sprayed or sprinkled around the root zone of trees with small sprinklers that work
under low pressure. The unit is fixed in a network of tubing but can be shifted from place to place.

The exact quantity of water can be delivered to each plant daily at the root zone. Water is given
only to the root zone area as in drip irrigation unlike the entire ground surface as in sprinkler irrigation
method.

This method is highly suitable for tree/orchard crops and vegetable crops and is ideally suited
for protected agriculture and forest trees.

Rainguns:

Rainguns are modified form of sprinklers and are less capital intensive as compared to
conventional sprinkler systems and can be modified to cater mainly other crops. They support highly
recommended practice of trash mulching in sugarcane enriching soil with nutrients.

Bubblers system:

This system relatively a new concept. It is essentially a modification of drip irrigation. It is

designed to reduce investment and energy requirement by using inexpensive then welled corrugated
plastic pipes of sufficient diameter. Well suited to trees and orchard crops. It does not require pumping
and an elaborate filtration system. Cater to widely spaced crops such as mango, sapota, organge,
coconut etc. The disadvantages in drip irrigation i.e. high energy consumption, clogging of drip emitters
and damage to screen filters are all avoided.

Biwall system: It is extended dual chamber microirrigation tubing manufactured from LLDPE.
This system is suitable for all closely spaced row crops like sugarcane, cotton, vegetable, tea etc.

Ways and means of reducing runoff losses of irrigation water?

Definition: Runoff losses of irrigation water occurs when irrigation water flow in conveyance and
field plot exceeds the channel capacity and field infiltration rate. By minimizing runoff losses, we can
save precious water increase area under irrigation hence higher productivity and quality of crop
production.

Way and means of reducing run-off losses of irrigation water:

Mechanical measures:

1. Ragulate the flow of water in field channel according to channel capacity by plugging leakages of
all waterlines during conveyance of water from its source to the field.
2. In underground pipeline, there is no loss of irrigation water due to seepage, runoff, evaporation,
weed growth and rat burrows.
3. Proper designing of farm water distribution system to provide enough water to all parts of farm
as per need. It should also provide safe disposal and recycling of runoff water.
4. Proper installation of microirrigation system as per soil type, crop slope and water quality avoids
high WUF, least runoff, convenyance and percolation losses and no water logging.
5. On high slopes, check dams and contour bunds are barriers across the slope for safe diversion of
excess runoff of irrigation water.
6. The Farm water distribution system should provide irrigation without soil erosion, runoff,
salinity and water logging.
7. Laser land leveling reduce in time and depth of irrigation water.

Agronomical measures:

 Laser land leveling for uniform distribution of water

 Improve infiltration rate of field plots by
 Adding organic matter (FYM, green manuring, incorporation of crop resides) to improve soil
structure
 Breaking impervious layer of sub-soil
 Amendment of alkali soil with Gypsum
 Mulching reducing soil and runoff losses
 Bunding
 Contour cultivation across the slope
 Proper scheduling of irrigation keeping in view rainfall forecasting.
 Tillage practices
  Suitable irrigation system should be planned that fits best to particular soil type, slope, crop,
water supply e.g. in surface flooding, chances of run off irrigation losses are more whereas in
drip and sprinkler WUF is very high.

Harvesting in dug out ponds and recycling of runoff of irrigation water.

Zabo system of irrigation and bamboo drip irrigation is common in Nagaland and roof top
rainwater harvesting for drinking water is quite common in Mizoram.

Rain Water Harvesting

Definition: Collection, storage and recycling of rainwater for irrigation and other uses e.g. zabo
system of farming through rainwater harvesting is practiced in Nagaland.

Rainwater harvesting approaches:

1. In-situ retention of rainfall on the land itself by agronomic and/or mechanical measures.
 Agronomic practices: Levelling of land, contour cultivation across the slope, bunding, inter row
and inter plot water harvesting, improving soil structure by adding organic manures, tillage
practices, mulching vegetative barriers etc.
 Mechanical measures: Contour bunding, graded bunded, bench terracing, graded trenches,
check dams etc. These structure give opportune time for infiltration of rainwater and minimize
soil erosion.
2. Ex-situ water harvesting in farm ponds:

Farm ponds are small water storage structure for collecting and storing surface runoff rainwater.
Excessive seepage and percolation losses of water from farm ponds can be reduced by lining at low cost.
Deeper ponds with lesser surface area have less evaporation losses. Most ponds are partially excavated
and are partially embankment types.

3. Recycling of harvested rainwater:

 Harvested rainwater, a scarce and precious natural resource should be utilized most judiciously
for supplemental life saving irrigation in subsequent dry periods at critical stages of crop growth
to boost productivity particularly in semi arid and arid regions.
 BC ratio of rainwater harvesting structure is different region varies from 1.48 to 3.89
 Harvested rain water in ponds can also used for drinking livestock, piscifulture etc.

Factors affecting rainwater harvesting:

 Intensity, duration and distribution of rainfall

 Degree and length of slope
 Physical properties of soil
 Cultural practices
Write a short note on recycling of harvested rainwater:-

Harvesting rainwater stored in water harvesting structures is a scarce and precious natural
resource like white gold should be utilized most judiciously.

Approaches for efficient use of harvested rainwater:

1. Efficient irrigation methods: The traditional methods of irrigation like flooding, check basin and
border irrigation result in poor conveyance and application efficiencies particularly in coarse-
textured soils. Hence, efficient water application methods such as furrows, sprinkler and drip
irrigations need to be recommended to minimize wastage of water and to bring more area
under command. Bamboo drip irrigation is quite common in Nagaland.
2. During conveyance of water from pond to field, there should be minimum seepage, evaporation,
runoff and percolation losses.
3. Protective irrigation: It is necessary to consider critical stages of crop growth, quantity of water
to be applied, cropping systems that respond most to limited water supply. The supplemental
life-saving irrigation given to crops at critical stage(s) can boost agricultural productivity
tremendously particularly in semi-arid and arid regions.
4. Multiple use of water: The harvested rainwater can be judiciously used for multiple uses such as
drinking, irrigation, livestock and fisheries to optimize water productivity.
5. Farmers participator approach: Farmers should be encouraged to form water use association
for efficient water resource development, utilization and maintenance for community water
harvesting structures. Overall cropping intensity and water productivity will increase with
harvested rainwater.

Irrigation Efficiency

It is the ratio usually expressed as per cent of the volume of water used in transpiration of plants
+ evaporation from soil during crop period (including field preparation and nursery + volume of irrigation
water per unit area of land to regulate salt content of soil – Effective rainfall divied by volume of water
per unit area of land that is stored in a reservoir or diverted for irrigation.

Ei = Wt+Ws-Re/Wi x 100

Ei = irrigation efficiency in per cent

Wt= volume of irrigation water per unit area of land transpired by plants and evaporated from soil
during the crop period (including field preparation and nursery) + water used in building plant tissue

Ws= Volume of irrigation water per unit area of land to regulate salt content of soil solution

Re = Effective rainfall

Wi = Volume of water per unit area of land that is stored in a reservoir or diverted for irrigation
Irrigation efficiency can be increased by reducing conveyance, runoff, seepage, evaporation and deep
percolation losses.

Low irrigation efficiency leads to rise in ground water table and salinization.

In water scarce conditions, there is urgent need for more economical use of water resources
through more scientific management of irrigation water for high degree of WUF as the prime objective.

Short Note on Multiple use of Water:

Multiple use of water refers to the numerous end uses of available water in a community. If
water can be used for some activity of economic or aesthetic value without appreciable consumptive
use then it will lead to higher productivity of water. For example, fish require water for their growth but
there is hardly any consumptive use involved in the process. So if the water is passed through auxiliary
reservoir or stored in farm pond before being diverted for irrigation, then economic productivity of
water would improve considerably. Fish can also be raised in deep water paddy growing areas without
increasing water requirement of the system.

Soil Moisture Measurement

Why important? Because it helps in:

1. Determination of available water in rootzone

2. Scheduling of irrigation
3. Soil water potential
4. Changes in physical and chemical properties of soil due to changes in water content

In field or in situ soil moisture content can be estimated by the following methods:-

Direct Methods:

Techniques which involve either direct measurement of wate present in a soil sample or loss of
water from a soil sample are called direct method.

Gravimetric or oven dry method:

 Still simplest and most widely used method.

 The moist soil samples are taken from the field from various depths using angers or tube
samplers.
 The samples are brought from the field to the laboratory in air tight aluminum cans.
 The samples are weighed and kept in hot air oven at 105-110 degree celcius till the constant
weight of the dry sample is attained.
 24 hours are generally considered sufficient to completely dry moist soils.
 The samples are weighted again after hot air oven drying to estimate the amount of water lost
by the soil.
Moisture content = Weight of moist soil – weight of oven dry fuel X 100

(on weight basis) % weight of oven dry soil

Advantages: Simple, reliable, unaffected by salt content, can be used through complete range of soil
water

Disadvantages: Very time consuming, laborious and sampling is destructive.

Indirect Methods

Measurement of some property of soil which is affected by soul water content. Technique that
measure

 Soil water content

 Soil matric potential

Indirect methods are preferred over direct methods because they are non-destructive, less time-
consuming and permit more frequent observations.

Soil water content:

Electrical resistance blocks:

The electrical resistance (porous) blocks made of gypsum are commonly used. Nylon and fibre
glass material can also be used. A gypsum porous block with two electrodes is placed n the soil at a
depth where moisture content is to be determined with lead wires of electrodes kept out of soil to take
resistance reading using a portable meter. The block soon comes to equilibriums with the soil moisture.
Current from battery source is passed between the electrodes. The water present in the block, assumed
to be in hydraulic equilibrium, offers resistance to current flow. At higher moisture content, resistance is
less and vice-verse. The resistance is calibrated with soil moisture content determined in the laboratory
to know soil moisture status from the resistance readings.

Advantage

This method gives reasonable accurate soil moisture reading within 1-15 atmosphere suction.
Best suited for fine textured soils.

Disadvantage:

 Electrical resistance blocks do not work satisfactorily in wetter range.

 Not reliable for determining when to irrigate sandy soil.

Neutron moisture meter: determines soil moisture. This technique uses interaction of neutrons
with water molecules as the basis of monitoring soil-water content. The instrument is also referred to as
a Depth Moisture Guage. Fast neutrons emitted by a mixture of a stable element and a radioactive
source, are slowed down by repeated collisions with nuclei of surrounding elements and brought to the
same thermal level as atoms of other substances. This process is called thermalization. The neutrons
lose maximum amount of energy when they strike an atom having almost the same mass as that of a
neutron. Hydrogen atoms are similar in mass to neutrons. Contribute maximum in thermalising
neutrons. This forms the basis of monitoring of soil water content using a neutron moisture meter
assuming that H atoms are part of water molecules.

Neutrons moisture meter is a proble consisting of a detector and radioactive source that is lowered
in the soil in metal access tube. Fast neutrons are emitted in soil and collide with H atoms of water
molecules and slow down the neutrons. The detector counts thermal neutrons and transmits the
information to the scaler placed outside. Soil water content can be determined by count rate of
calibrated instrument of that particular soil. The scaler counts slow neutrons which are directly
proportional to water molecules in soil.

Advantage:

 Has become popular due to its convenience in using and accuracy.

 Soil moisture can be estimated quickly and continuously without disturbing the soil.
 Soil moisture can be estimated from large volume of soil.

Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) is a new device to measure soil water content:

Two parallel rods inserted into the soil depth

Rods connected to TDR

TDR sends an electromagnetic pulse of energy along the rods

The rate at which pulse is conducted into soil and reflected back to soil surface is directly related to
average water content of soil.

Soil matrix potential

Tensiometer: measures tension (or suction or negative pressure at which moisture is held in
soil. The tensiometer is a tube fitted with a porous ceramic cup at lower end and a vaccum gugae at the
top end. When the tube is filled with water, vaccum guager shows “zero” reading. Whenthe porous cup
is placed in soil of less than saturation moisture content. To maintain equilibrium, soil around the cup
draws water from tensiometer tube causing a decline of water in a tube to sub-atmospheric level. The
vaccum guage measures this pressure called suction or tension directly and no calibration is required.
Soil water tension is commonly expressed in units of bears or centibers. The tensiometer tube can be
selected of a suitable length to allow soil moisture measurement at desired.

Advantages:

 Easy to use, scientific, accurate, cheep

 It considers climatic parameters and can be applicable for same type of soil and crop.
Drawbacks: Not suitable for dryland areas

 Low working range

 Requires standardization
 Skilled required
 Example of: Irrigation is scheduled in wheat at 0.5 atm at 23 depth and maize at 0.65 atm at 15
cm depth.

Scheduling of irrigation:

Irrigation scheduling is defined as scientific management techniques of allocating irrigation

water based on the individual crop requirement (evapotranspiration) under different soil and climatic
conditions with an aim to achieve maximum crop production per unit water over a unit area in unit time.
Irrigation scheduling is simply determination of period process when to irrigate ands how much water to
irrigate for optimal production.

Advantages of Efficient Irrigation Scheduling:

 High water use efficiency

 High crop yield of good quality
 High efficiency of nutrients applied/reduces nutrient losses by technique.
 Minimizes percolation losses and water logging and crop water stress problems
 Water saved can be used for irrigating additional area
 Least damage to soil health
 Replenish soil moisture at the desired level
 Low irrigation cost

Criteria or approaches of scheduling of irrigation:

Plant characteristics: Plants are the best indicators to reflect moisture status and environmental
conditions.

Visual plant symptoms: As soon as deficiency of water occurs chlorosis wilting and leaf rolling
take place e.g. internode shortening in sugarcane, leaf rolling in maize. Irrigation must be scheduled as
soon as aforesaid symptoms appear on plants.

Disadvantage:

 By the time symptoms appear, the crop had already suffered yield and quality loss
 Wilting and chorosis may be caused due to pests and pathogen

Indicator plot technique:

One cubic foot microplot is made of with coarse texdtured soil to have more infiltration, less
water holding capacity and more evaporation then actual main field. Seed of same crop and variety is
grown in the microplot with all similar cultural practices as the main crop. The crop in microplot will
show early stress symptoms than that of main field. Based on this indication scheduling of irrigation can
be done.

Indicator plant technique:

Indicator plants like sunflower, tomato are grown in association with main crops. Indicator
plants show stress symptoms earlier than the main crop plants as they are more sensitive to water
stress and act as criterion for irrigation scheduling.

Critical growth stages:

Critical growth stage(s) are stages of growth of the crop at which moisture stress has the
greatest deleterious effect on yield and quality of crop.

When irrigation water is limited and aim is to maximize production per unit of water, then
schedule irrigation at critical stages of the crop e.g. in wheat, critical stages of irrigation are crown root
initiation and flowering.

In maize, Tasselling and silking are critical stages for scheduling irrigation.

Most suitable for pulses, oilseeds, wheat, maize.

Major drawback: It does not include climatic and soil parameters.

Soil Moisture approach:

Soil moisture approaches are based on soil water deficit or soil moisture availability at the
specified depths in the root zone.

Soil moisture availability:

The crops are irrigated at different soil moisture availability and best range of available soil
moisture is found out through research and used for scheduling irrigation. This should always refer to
specific root zone/depth. Soil moisture canbe measures by gravimetric or neutron moisture meter at 30-
60 cm depth. The irrigation scheduling for wheat is done at 40-50% available soil moisture at 60 cm
depth.

Forage crops at 70-75% available soil moisture at 30 cm depth. This method is scientific,
accurate and applicable to same crop under same soil conditions. It cannot be used for different soil
types.

Soil moisture tension:

Tensiometer measures soil water tension in the rootzone. On the basis of tension or suction in
bars scheduling of irrigation is done.

Critical soil moisture tension at which irrigation should be given.

  Wheat 40-50 centibers
 Maize 25-50 centibers
 Potato 25-50 centibers

Climatological approach:

In this approach, the water loss expressed in terms of either potential evapotranspiration (PET)
or cumulative pan evaporation over short periods of time are taken as an index for scheduling irrigation.

Potential evapotranspiration (PET)

PET is defined as the amount of water transpired in a unit time by short green crop of uniform
height, completely covering the ground and never short of water (Penmen, 1948). PET can be estimated
by several techniques viz. lysimeter, energy balance, combination of energy balance expirical formular
etc. Irrigation can be schedules based on knowledge of PET or water use rates of crops over short time
intervals of crop growth.

 Use is limited to specific research purpose

 Costly

Advantage: More accurate, scientific

Cumulative pan evaporation:

Pan evaporation could be used as a guide for scheduling irrigation to crops

Wheat required 75-100 mm cumulative pan evaporation at Ludhiana.

IW: CPE ratio: basis for scheduling irrigation

It is the ratio of depth of irrigation water to cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) minus
precipitation since previous irrigation. For a crop , this ratio is fixed:

IW:CPE ratio e.g. for wheat it is 1.0 at Ludhiana, Kanpur

Oilseeds and Pulses

IW:CPE ratio is fixed, deptt. Of irrigation water to be given is known. So, CPE can be calculated.

Wheat crop

IW: CPE ratio is 1.0

Depth of irrigation water = 50 mm

CPE comes out to be 50 cm

 As soon as this much CPE is reached, irrigation is scheduled to wheat crop. Based on this
approach, optimum irrigation schedules for different crops were developed.

Advantages:

 Accurate and scientific

 It is the best method as it covers all factors related to soil, crop and climate.

Remote sensing: Remote sensing can be used to find out stress condition of the crop on a large area
through sensors and infra-red radiometers fitted on satellite.

It requires costly equipments, needs standardization.

Short note on Scheduling of Irrigation:

Irrigation scheduling is defined as the determination of the period when to irrigate and how
much water to irrigate for optimal crop production.

 The main objectives of efficient irrigation scheduling includes:

 High crop yield of good quality
 High water use efficiency
 Least damage to soil productivity
 Low irrigation cost
 Minimum percolation losses and water logging
 Reduces nutrient losses by leaching

Criteria/approaches for scheduling irrigation:-

1. Plant characteristics approach:

 Visual plant symptoms: Irrigation is scheduled as soon as appearance wilting, leaf rotting
chlorosis which manifest water stress condition in plants.
 Critical growth stage:- The purpose of optimum scheduling of irrigation is to ensure adequate
supply of soil to minimize plant water stress during critical growth stages of crop to maximize
production per unit of water when water amount is limited e.g. in wheat, CRI and flowering are
criticial stages. Indicator plant, indicator plot, canopy temperature are other plant indices
followed for scheduling irrigation.
2. Soil moisture approach for scheduling irrigation: Soil moisture approach is based on soil water
tension (by tensiometer) or moisture availability at specified depths in the root zone.
3. Clomatological approach
 IW/CPE ratio: it is the ratio of depth of irrigation water to cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) e.g.
in wheat IW:CPE ratio = 1.0

Depth of irrigation water = 50 mm

CPE = 50 33 – Irrigation is scheduled as this point.

The approach is accurate, scientific, best method and takes into account soil, crop and climate.

Fertigation:

Process of applying suitable fertilizers with irrigation water through microirrigation system. It is
generally done with deep or trickle irrigation system.

Advantages:

 Eliminates manual application

 Quick, convenient and uniform distribution
 High efficiency and saving of fertilizers upto 30-40%
 Less fertilizers leaching
 Coordination of nutrition requirement with crop stage
 Possibility of dosage control

Limitations:

 Chances of backflow into water source

 Insoluble fertilizers are not suitable e.g. single superphosphate.
 Corrosive effect of fertilizers
 Availability of P is very low due to precipitation at high pH.
 High cost and skill is required

N: Urea is applied through trickle irrigation because it is highly soluble fertilizer.

P: Injection of P fertilizer through trickle irrigation system has not been recommended. Clogging of
emitters with Ca and Mg phosphates.

K: No chemical reaction when K fertilizers are added alone.

Fertilisers suitable for fertigation:

Nitrogen fertilizers – 46-0-0 Urea,

N&P – fertilizer DAP

K fertilizer – Muriate of Potash (Kcl) and KNO3

Fertiliser schedule and dose:

Fertiliser schedule depends on site specific conditions: crop, soil, nutrients required, amount of
water to be applied, fertilizer injector etc. Correct rate and concentration of application should be
selected to over over fertigation.

Fertiliser application through drip irrigation may be applied @ 100 ppm in general for most crop
needs.
 Chemical fertilizers in fertiligation should not corrode, precipitate, clog the lines

Should be soluble, uniformly mixed and distributed, safe for field use.

Equipments for fertigation:

1. By pass pressure tank – tank for dry or liquid fertilizers.

 Tank is connected to main line of irrigation line by means of a bye pass.
2. Venturi Injector: A constriction in main water flow pipe. The rate of injection can be regulated
by means of valves. This is simple and relatively inexpensive method of fertilizer application.
3. Direct injection method: with this method, a pump is used to inject fertilizer solution into
irrigation line. This type of pump is dependent on power source.
 Most convenient to use. The electric pump is automatically controlled.
 Accurate fertiligation.

Two injection points should be provided one before and one after the filter for fertigation. This
arrangement helps in by passing the filter if filter is not required and thus avoids corrosion damage to
valves, filters and filter screens or to the sand media of sand filters.
 FORESTRY

2018

1. Role of forestry in carbon sequestration? (10)

2. Describe the types and benefits of non-conventional forestry systems. State the characteristics
of suitable tree species for non-conventional forestry? (20)

2017

1. What do you mean by remote sensing and GIS? What are their applications in agriculture and
forestry? (10)
2. Describe role of afforestation in minimizing environmental pollution? (20)
3. Describe utility of forest products in increasing farmers’ income? (20)
4. Describe the utility of remote sensing and GIS in forest plantation?

2016

1. Differentiate between agroforestry and agrostology? (10)

2. Briefly describe various types of forestry plantations like social forestry, agroforestry and natural
forests. What methods are employed for propagation of forest plants? (20)

2015

1. Differentiate between agroforestry and agrostology? (10)

2014

1. How agroforestry plantation is helpful to the farmers? (20)

2013

1. Short note on social forestry? (10)

2. Short note on Ley farming? (10)

2012

1. What is subsistence agroforestry system? Describe Taungya cultivation? (15)

2011

1. Differentiate between agroforestry and social forestry? (10)

2008

1. Propagation of forest plants/trees? (20)

2007
 1. Agroforestry? (20)

2005

1. Agroforestry? (20)

2004

1. Multipurpose tree species? (20)

2003

1. Shifting cultivation and Taungya system? (20)

2001

1. Scope of agroforestry? (20)

1999

1. Role of agroforestry in energy production? (20)

1998

1. Agro-forestry is a promising alternative to the traditional cropping pattern? (20)

1997

1. Short note on agroforestry? (20)

1995

1. Write short note on Agroforestry? (20)

1994

1. Write short note (200 words) on Shalter belt plantation? (20)

 EXTENSION EDUCATION

2018

1. What is the role of NGOs and self help groups in technology dissemination for agril
development? (10)
2. What is front line demonstration? How does it help in boosting the production and productivity
of crops? (10)
3. Use of ICTs in agricultural extension? (10)

2017

1. SHG approach for agril and rural development? (10)

2. What are target groups in agril extension? What role can KVKs play to reach such groups? (20)
3. What are principles of agril extension education? How does it differ from formal education? (10)

2016

1. Role of KVK? (10)

2. Discuss various methods of evaluation of extension programmes. Discuss the significance of
SHGs in rural development with successful examples? (20)
3. Define agricultural extension. Differentiate between extension education and formal education.
Discuss its importance in agril development. (20)

2015

1. What is the importance of KVK in the context of rural livelihood? (10)

2. Why is Broad Based Extension multidirectional? What difficulties arise in its implementation?
(15)

2014

1. What is the role of ATMA as a converging agency? (20)

2. How is a new technology assessed and refined? (20)
3. Who are the target group sin agril extension? State mechanism to reach such groups? (20)

2013

1. Participatory Rural Appraisal? (10)

2. Broad based extension? (12.5)

2012

1. Discuss technology assessment and refinement through Institutional village linkage programme?
(15)
2. Emerging concepts of transfer of technology? (12)
3. Differentiate between SHGs and CIGs? (15)
 4. Differentiate between Result Demon and Method Demon? (15)
5. Discuss about indigenous technical knowledge and its importance? (15)

2011

1. Kisan Call Centre? (15)

2. What is extension programme planning? Explain principles and steps of extension programme
planning. How will you evaluate an extension programme? (30)
3. Role of SHGs in empowering rural women? (15)

2010

1. Despite existence of KVKs in most of the districts, it is argued that only selective technologies
have gone to ultimate clients. Evaluate this argument and enumerate the constraints in
dissemination of technologies? (30)
2. Comment on methodology of socio-economic survey in India? (10)
3. Process of evaluation of extension programmes? (10)

2009

1. Short note on KVKs? (20)

2008

1. Describe the role of KVKs, NGOs, SAUs and Dept. of Agri. In relation to fast and effective
dissemination of agril. Technologies? (20)

2007

1. Short note on Farmer – research linkages? (15)

2006

1. What are the differences between formal and extension education? Which are the extension
methods employed to introduce new agril technologies for the farming community? Write
beneficial effects of extension for increasing agril production? (20)
2. Extension Teaching methods? (20)

2005

1. Lab to land programme? (20)

2004

1. Describe the importance and role of agril extension in the context of small and marginal
farmers. Discuss the limitation in effective transfer of technology to farmers in India? (20)

2002
 1. Short note on role of agricultural extension? (20)

2001

1. Shorte note on methods of evaluation of extension programmes? (20)

1999

1. Discuss the need for changing the concept of “Lab to Land” to “Farmer First”. Explain the role of
an agricultural scientist and farmer in these two concepts? (20)

1998

1. Write note on CD Programme? (20)

2. How much agricultural technology has been transferred to farmers? Discuss (60)

1997

1. Write short note on T&V system? (20)

1996

1. Write short note on Research extension farmer linkage? (10)

1995

1. Write short note on agricultural extension training (200 words)? (20)

1994

1. Write short note on lab to land programme (200 words)? (20)

 IRRIGATION

2018

1. Precise water saving irrigation practices of enhance water use efficiency? (10)
2. Discuss importance and method of water harvesting under different agro-systems? (20)
3. What are different sources of soil and water pollutions? Describe the impact of soil and wter
pollution on crop productivity and environment? (20)
4. It is proposed to test relative efficiency of scheduling irrigation to ground nut at 25%, 50% and
75% depletion of available soil moisture. Field capacity of soil in the effective root zone depth of
60 cm is 16% with a permanent wilting point of 6%. At what respective soil moisture contents,
irrigations re to be scheduled with three irrigations? (10)

2017

1. What are different techniques used for increasing water use efficiency in relation to crop
production? (20)
2. Describe different measures to improve drainage of water logged soils to increase soil fertility
and crop productivity? (20)

2016

1. Discuss significance of quality of irrigation water and rain water harvesting for crop production.
Describe how irrigation is scheduled in the critical stage of crop growth? (20)
2. Explain how industrial effluents affect soil and water pollution. What measures canbe takento
reduce this impact? (20)
3. Differentiate between fertigation and herbigation. (10)

2015

1. Write the concept of soil moisture constraints. Write the role and availabilityof moisture of
plants? (15)

2014

1. How to increase water absorpition and retention capacity? (10)

2. Write a note on rain water harvesting and recharge of ground water? (20)

2013

1. What are the Scientific irrigation Scheduling criteria? What is critical stage approach for
scheduling irrigation? (10)
2. Quality of irrigation water? (10)
3. Differentiate and elaborate gravitational water and hygroscopic water? (10)
4. Write note on quality of irrigation water? (10)
2012

1. What is PWP? Describe Surge flow irrigation? (15)

2. Differentiate between
(a) Biodrainage and horizontal drainage (15)
(b) Water distribution efficiency and water use efficiency (15)
3. What is water quality classification? Describe the hazards arising out of water quality? (15)

2011

1. Write a note on:

(a) Surface and sub-surface drip irrigation? (20)
(b) Explain fertigation, giving its merits. Give suitable fertilizers of major nutrients used in
fertigation through micro-irrigation? (15+15)
(c) Enumerate fertigtion equipments along with their merits and demerits? (30)
(d) Problems of water logged soils? (15)
(e) Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) in irrigation water? (15)
(f) Criteria of Scheduling Irrigation (15)
(g) Importance of available soil moisture in irrigation water management (20)
(h) Principles of treatment of industrial effluents for irrigation purpose (15)

2010

1. Write note minimizing run-off losses of irrigation? (20)

2. Bring out the geographic status of ground water availability in India? (15)

2009

1. Differentiate between following: (20)

(a) WUE and irrigation efficiency
(b) Water requirement and irrigation requirement
2. Write a note on Scheduling Irrigation? (20)
3. What is micro-irrigation and what are its advantage compared to conventional methods of
irrigation? Discuss the important micro-irrigation system w.r.t. their pros and cons, the
precautions in their use and the cropping situation? (20)

2008

1. Write note quality of Irrigation water? (20)

2006

1. Write a note on Scheduling Irrigation? (20)

2005
 1. Write short note on PET? (20)
2. What are the causes of water logging in our country? How are the soil and crop productivity
affected by it? Suggest methods of prevention to enhance agril. productivity? (20)
3. Write short note on Sprinkler Irrigation system? (20)
4. Write a note on Water Economy in Potato? (20)

2004

1. Describe short note on quality of irrigation water? (20)

2003

1. What is WUE? Enlist the factors affecting WUE. Suggest some measures to increase WUE in
crops? (20)

2002

1. Discuss the criteria for scheduling irrigation in field crops. Give their merits and demerits. (20)

2001

1. Discuss different approaches of scheduling irrigation in field crops. Give your opinion about drip
and sprinkler irrigation in field crops? (20)

1999

1. Write note on Drip Irrigation? (20)

1998

1. Discuss systems and methods of irrigation in Indian agriculture? (60)

1997

1. Write note on following (200 words each)? (20)

(a) Water logging
(b) Soil moisture depletion approach

1996

1. Suggest various approaches of scheduling irrigation in field crops and select the most
appropriate one with reasoning? (10)
2. Describe one approach of scheduling irrigation in cereal crops? (20)

1995
 1. Discuss sources of water logging and its effects on soil physical condition? (20)
2. Explain the techniques of scheduling irrigation in field crops? (20)

1994

1. Write Short note on WUE? (20)