Social Forces, University of North Carolina Press

Ecology and Human Ecology Author(s): Amos H. Hawley Reviewed work(s): Source: Social Forces, Vol. 22, No. 4 (May, 1944), pp. 398-405 Published by: Oxford University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2571805 . Accessed: 10/04/2012 05:17
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SOCIAL FORCES stability persist as they are likely to, the possibilities for the future social structure lie between a dictatorship where the planning (not social planning) is for the maintenance of power and social planning for the maintenance of democracy. We probably lack the choice between plan and no plan, but it is conceivable that we could successfully plan our social structure for the maintenance of democratic principles. The greatest danger to such an achievement, as the Italian philosopher Croce recently put it, is active ignorance.26
25 Germany and Italy are better examples of the use of modern natural and social science to gain and maintain power than they are of societal planning. 26 New York Times, Sept. 30, 1943, 4:6.

government control tends to promote equal distribution of whatever advantages are derived from planning. Our open-class philosophy and broad educational base would tend to make planning for the exclusive benefit of the elite classes unworkable. Since dictatorial regimes, as well as social planning, tend to arise in crisis situations, it is not at all unexpected to find dictatorships the first proponents of planning. Their coincidental development, however, does not indicate that planning brought about the dictatorships; in fact, quite the reverse was true.25 Still a current trend of thought which is not uncommon among social scientists pictures social planning as the entering wedge for dictatorship. If the problems of social order and

ECOLOGY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY

UMAN ecology, from its inception to a

comparatively recent date, is reminiscent of Alice's curious experience in the rabbit hole when she, after consuming the pretty little cake, opened out "like the largest telescope that ever was." Emerging abruptly in the early 1920's, human ecology quickly became, as an otherwise unkind commentator puts it, "one of the most definite and influential schools in American sociology.. .2X It is now beginning to appear, however, that the period of burgeoning growth has given way to a second phase in which sober criticism rather than feverish application is the prevailing note. Reexamination and reappraisal are the order of the day.2 This cannot be anything but welcome, for it is a necessary preface to the sorely needed reconstruction of human ecological thought. Hence the addition of still another voice to the developing symposium may not be amiss.2a
1 M. A. Alihan, Social Ecology, A Critical Analysis (New York, 1938), p. xi. 2 M. A. Alihan, ibid.; J. A. Quinn, "Human Ecology and Interactional Ecology," Amer. Sociol. Rev., V (Oct., 1940), 713-22; and W. E. Gettys, "Human Ecology and Social Theory," Social Forces, XVIII (1940) 469-76. 2a I am indebted to the late Professor R. D. McKenzie for most of the ideas set forth in this paper, but responsibility for their statement here is entirely mine.

Perhaps it is to be expected that the sudden ascent to popularity of an innovation in scientific thought should be accompanied by a certain amount of confusion as to its specific connotation. If so, human ecology has satisfied expectations, for after twenty years it remains a somewhat crude and ambiguous conception. A perusal of the literature that has accumulated under the name can hardly fail to produce bewilderment. One finds it variously argued that the study deals essentially with "sub-social" phenomena, with the effects of competition, with spatial distributions, with the influence of geographic factors, and with still other more or less intelligibly delineated aspects of human behavior. There are some writers who would have human ecology encompass the whole field of social science, and there are others who prefer to relegate it to the status of a mere sociological research technique. Between these wide extremes the subject can be found identified in turn with biology, economics, human geography, sociology, and, as if not to overlook a possibility, it is sometimes described as marginal to all other life sciences.3 Indeed, the sole point of agreement among the many diverse conceptions of
3For a more exhaustive discussion of the variety of points of view in human ecology see J. A. Quinn, "Tropical Summary of Current Literature in Human Ecology," Amer. J. Sociol., XLVI (Sept., 1940), 191-226.

ECOLOGY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY human ecology seems to be that it pertains to some phase of man's relation to his physical universe. This, unfortunately, is no distinction, since most of the sciences of man may be characterized in the same manner. Whatever may be said regarding the confusion as to the nature of the study, it cannot be charged to a lack at the outset of careful attempts at systematic theoretical formulation. The success of human ecology in attracting and holding the large share of attention it has enjoyed is largely a result of the ingeniousness, simplicity, and utility of the early definitive statement.4 But these seem to have been accepted as dogmas rather than, as intended, as suggestions of the possibilities of an ecological approach to the study of human social life. Subsequent work in the field, with veryfew exceptions, was not aimed at exploring the full implication of ecology as applied to man. Instead there was a wholesale application of a little understood point of view and in consequencethe theoretical development of the discipline received scarcely any attention. In fact, most so-called ecological studies have been occupied with incidentals and byproducts of the approach, and not a few are totally irrelevant to the caption under which they appear in print. But to be more specific, responsibility for the existing chaos in human ecology, it seems to me, rests upon certain aberrant intellectual tendencies which have dominated most of the work that has been done. The more significant of these may be described as: (1) the failure to maintain a close working relationship between human ecology and general or bioecology; (2) an undue preoccupation with the concept competititon; and (3) the persistence in definitions of the subject of a misplaced emphasis on "spatial relations." Whether such habits of thought originatedfromone source or another is unimportant. What is important is that they have consistently confused the issue thereby hampering the progress of the discipline. The purpose of the present paper is to indicate the deficiencies of these elements of human ecological thought and thus to aid in clearing the way for a reorganizationof the subject.
See R. D. McKenzie, "The Ecological Approach to the Study of the Human Community," in R. E. Park, E. W. Burgess, and R. D. McKenzie (eds.), ThzeCity (Chicago, 1925), pp. 63-79; R. E. Park, "The Urban Community as a Spatial Pattern and a Moral Order," in E. W. Burgess (ed.), The Urban Community(Chicago, 1926), pp. 3-18; and R. D. McKenzie, "The Scope of Human Ecology," The Urban Community,pp. 167-82.

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Probably most of the difficulties which beset human ecology may be traced to the isolation of the subject from the mainstream of ecological thought. Although it seems almost too elementary to mention, the only conceivable justification for a human ecology must derive from the intrinsic utility of ecological theory as such. Obvious as this may seem, it is not a fact that is generally taken seriously. Exponents of human ecology, despite their steadfast adherence to the name, tend to view with indifference or regret the fact that their subject has any connection with the parent discipline. This is indeed a paradox. If a person chooses to call this work ecology, it would appear reasonable to assume that his studies are intended to parallel, at least in some particulars, those of others working under the same general title. However, very few persons who regard themselves as human ecologists indicate an awareness that they are logically committed to follow out in the study of man the implications of ecology. In general, students are divided into two camps with respect to the relation of human to general ecology. One group, taking the position that ecology offers an essentially biological approach to the study of the human community, has recognized a close association between the two.5 But while this admission has been accompanied by a relatively free borrowing of terminology, it has yielded very little in the way of theoretical unity. The second group expresses a somewhat reactionary viewpoint. Its representatives strongly oppose even a suggestion of similarity between the two phases of the discipline on the ground that any assumption of analogy as between social and biological phenomena is invalid and impractical.6 Human ecology, according to this view, should be developed independent of other branches of ecology. Without entering into a detailed consideration of either of these positions, it will be sufficient to point out that the conception of ecology contained therein is acutally a misconception. The widespread belief that ecology is a biologism, as it were, has no logical support, not even in the conventional academic distinction between sociology and biology. That ecology is basically a social science has long been clear to most serious students of the
5 See, R. E. Park, "Human Ecology," Amer. J. Sociol., XLII (July, 1936), 1-15; and A. B. Hollingshead, "Human Ecology," in R. E. Park (ed.), An Outline of the Principles of Sociology, (New York, 1939), pp. 65-74. 6 See W. E. Gettys, loc. cit., pp. 470-71.

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subject.7 It is apparent, moreover, in almost every aspect of the discipline: in the root of the term ecology; in the historical details of the subject's development; in the large place given to sociological concepts such as community, society, niche, commensalism, symbiosis, dominance, succession, etc.; and in the manner in which problems for investigation are stated. But all of this appears to have escaped the majority of so-called human ecologists; they, have proceeded without benefit from the theoretical position theybelieve themselves to have adopted. Evidently it is for such reasons that the concept competition and the interest in spatial analysis have absorbed so much of the energies of students of the subject. The assignment of the concept competition to a key role in human ecology is, in fact, premised largely on the biological interpretation of the subject. The steps which lead to this inference may be simply stated. Struggle, of which competition is but a refined expression, is the law of biological nature and the circumstance out of which all order arises. Competition is therefore a biological phenomenon. Moreover, since competition is definable as a process in which individuals or other units affect one another through affecting a common limited supply of sustenance materials, it does not presuppose consciousness or social consensus in the units concerned,8 and what is not social must therefore be biological. Hence, it is concluded, to base human ecology on the concept competition is to carry through to the study of man the distindive ecological approach. Thus has competition come to be regardedas the necessary hypothesis of the study,-as the efficient cause, so to speak, in the development of ecologicalphenomena. "Human ecology," writes one author, in what may be considered a representative statement, "deals with society in its biological and symbiotic aspects that is, those aspects brought about by competition and by struggle of individuals, in any social order, to survive and to perpetuate themselves."9
7 See C. C. Adams, "The Relation of General Ecology to Human Ecology," Ecology, XVI (July, 1935), 316-35; J. Braun-Blanquet, Plant Sociology, trans. by G. D. Fuller and H. S. Conrad (New York, 1932); F. E. Clements and V. E. Shelford, Bio-Ecology (New York, 1939), p. 24 ff.; J. Arthur Thomson, Darwinism and Human Life (New York, 1911), pp. 72 if.; H. G. Wells, Julian S. Huxley, and G. P. Wells, The Science of Life (New York, 1934), pp. 961-62. 8R. E. Park and E. W. Burgess, An Introduction to the Science of Sociology (Chicago, 1929), p. 506. 9 A. B. Hollingshead, loc. cit., p. 70.

The defects in this line of reasoning are manifold. The desire on the part of human ecologists to achieve a thorough-going natural science treatment of human behavior undoubtedly lies at the roots of their theorizing relative to competition. But the question as to whether the struggle for existence is categorically a natural, in the sense of biological, phenomenon is seldom considered. To insist that it is, for no other reason than that the conception was first extensively used in connection with a biological problem and later became recognized as a part of the language of biology, would appear to indicate a stronger addiction to words than to thoughts. As a matter of fact, a cogent argument can be made in favor of the inherent sociological quality of the idea of struggle. Unless I am mistaken, "struggle for existence" pertains primarily to the behavior of organisms relative to one another.'0 If this be the province of biology, then ipso facto all social science resolves itself into biology. Further difficulty in this respect arises from the belief, not limited to human ecologists, that a natural science must seek causation outside the sphere of consciousness. Competition, because of its essentially unconsciousness or asocial character, is assumed to provide a definitely natural science, i.e., objective and impersonal, avenue of approach." Why the natural and the conscious should be regarded as mutually exclusive categories it is impossible to say. Surely it is as natural for man to think and act accordingly as for a squirrelto store nuts or for a rock, when loosened, to roll down the mountain slope. However, and more to the point, the distinction between conscious and unconscious activity is difficult if not impossible to maintain in practice. It presents problems of observation for which there is no yardstick. Whether competition does or does not include conscious elements is a matter of definition and therefore subject to individual opinion. What is important, if true, is that individuals do affect one another through affecting the available supply of required materials. This is all that need concern the ecologist. In any event, as economists, anthropologists and others
10 Cf. Charles Darwin, Origin of Species (New York, 1925), Chap. III. One exception exists in the fact that struggle may occur between an organism and the physical and mechanical conditions of the environment. But this, in the ecological point of view, is a major stimulus to inter-organic behavior. 11Cf. C. A. Dawson and W. E. Gettys, An Introduction to Sociology (New York, 1935), p. 122.

ECOLOGY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY have amply shown, an objective or so-called natural science approach does not stand or fall on an exclusive use of unconsciousbehavior as data. The application of competition as an hypothesis also involves a number of serious problems. For example, it presupposes a knowledge-not always at hand-of the intrinsic qualities of the individuals or other units concerned, i.e., in regard to homogeneity or similarity of life requirements. Frequently individuals who at first glance might be considered competitors turn out to be so differentiated, through the operation of genetic processes and early conditioning, as not to be competitors at all. Braun-Blanquet states: "It has further been said that certain species [of plants] are in general confined to certain soils, but when they come into competition one wins on calcareous soil, the other on siliceous soil." But, he continues, "the life requirements of these pairs of species are so different that the question of competition cannot arise."'12 This illustrates the ecologist's need for an adequate taxonomy, a need which has been sadly neglected in the social sciences. The utility of competition as an explanatory tool will remain in doubt until a fuller knowledge of functional or social types is developed. A related problem exists with regard to the observability of the operation of competition. The specific sequence of changes by which a homogeneous aggregate is converted into a differentiated and interdependent population has not been described in detail. Consequently it is almost impossible to indicate what to look for in order to see competition in action. The situation is not improved by pointing out that the process is a type of interaction, that is, a process of mutual internal modification. Ecologists, unfortunately, lack the technique for the observation of internal phenomena. Defined in terms of competitive interaction, ecology amounts to little more than the contemplation of a concept.13 This, parenthetically, seems to be the net result of interactional theory in general so far as its use by sociologists is concerned. It would appear that psychologists are better equipped to deal with such a matter.
Plant Sociology, Trans. by G. 12J. Braun-Blanquet, D. Fuller and H. S. Conrad (New York, 1932), pp. 15-16 (Parentheses mine). See also Gardner Murphy. Lois B. Murphy, and T. M. Newcomb, Experimental, Social Psychiology(New York, 1937), p. 339. 13 Cf. James A. Quinn, "Human Ecology and Interactional Ecology," Amer. Sociol. Rev., V (Oct., 1940), 721-22.

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There would be no cause to mention this problem had human ecologists actually treated competition as an hypothesis to be tested and demonstrated. However, in no instance, so far as I am aware, has a student of the subject applied himself to such a task. The truth of the matter is that the concept serves in practice as a post hoc interpretation. This being the case, the question whether the concept describes what it is supposed to describe remains unanswered. Doubt will linger on this point until the prerequisites for observation have been fulfilled. It has been fairly well established, however, that the competitive hypothesis is a gross over-simplification of what is involved in the development of pattern, structure, or other manifestation of organization. As a matter of fact, the customary interpretation of the Darwinian "struggle for existence" to mean that the primary and dominant relationship in animate nature is opposition whether clamorous combat or the more subtle competition, forms one of the neatest illustrations of the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness" that may anywhere be found. Darwin used the phrase in "a large and metaphorical sense,"''4subsuming under it all expenditures of effort to maintain and expand life. Combination and cooperation as well as competition and conflict are embracedin the concept. That mutual aid is just as fundamental and universal as opposition has been abundantly shown in numerous field and laboratory studies by students of plants and animals.15 There seems to be no reason to assume that human collective life is any more amenable to monistic explanation. These remarksshould not be taken to imply that competition has no place in ecological thought. The criticism is directed solely at the loose and extravagant use of the concept which enabled it to become accepted as the basic theoretical element in human ecology. The significance of competition may better serve as a topic for a separate discussion and hence will not be taken up here. Certainly competition is not the pivotal conception of ecology; in fact, it is possible to describe the subject without even an allusion to competition. Another persistent inconsistency in human ecology, which also reflects the failure of the disOrigin of Species (New York, 1925), p. 78. For a brief but excellent summary of this literature see W. C. Alee, The Social Life of Animals (New York, 1937), chap. III. See also M. L. McAtee, "The Malthusian Principle in Nature," The Scientific Monthly, 42 (May, 1936), 453 ff.
15 14

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SOCIAL FORCES so-called statistical, case-study, and historical methods.'8 In other words, one of the techniques employed in ecological research-mapping-has been mistaken for the discipline itself. That space and time are merely convenient abstractions by which to measure activities and relationships has been rather consistently overlooked. To contend that human behavior is bound by such dimensions is but to insist that it occurs in an experiential universe and is therefore subject to observation and measurement. This is what is meant, fundamentally, when itis asserted that human ecology is a natural science. But it is important to note that every enterprise which may be called science is a natural science in at least this sense of the term. Every science, that is, must deal with the spatial and temporal aspects of its own subject-matter. The differences between scientific disciplines arise not in respect to method but rather in respect to problems. And in the case of human ecology as elsewhere ,the problem is the distinguishing feature. Spatial and temporal considerations are incidental to the investigation of the ecological problem. Now it may be asked: What remains of human ecology, if its usual mainstays-the concept competition and spatial analysis-are removed to positions of minor importance? Before entering into a discussion of this question, it may-be well to give some thought to the matter of preference of one definition or another for a given study. By what prerogative may one say that human ecology is this or that? The answer, of course, depends on how the criteria of appropriateness of a discipline happen to be regarded. Probably few will deny however, that the problem with which a study is to be concerned must not only be significant but must also be a problem that is not already preempted by other disciplines. It is no easier to defend a needless duplication of effort than it is a preoccupation with irrelevant issues. Unless human ecology has a problem of its own, then, it is nothing and may as well be forgotten. But just as urgent is the necessity that a discipline be coherent within itself and consistent with the point of view it pretends to represent. There is no basis, in other words, for calling a study human ecology, if it is not ecological. Both of these considerations should be kept in the foreground in any definition
18 Calvin F. Schmid, "The Ecological Method in Social Research,"in P. V. Young, ScientificSocial (New York, 1939), chap. XII. Surveysand Research

cipline to develop in close relation to general ecology, exists in the emphasis put upon spatial relations or spatial aspects of human interdependencies. The origin of this peculiarity may be found in early definitions of the subject, such as, human ecology is "a study of the spatial and temporal relations of human beings as affected by the selective, distributive, and accommodative forces of the environment."'6 While such a statement has the advantage of concreteness and was highly useful in the "absence of any precedent," it seemed to indicate a subordination of interest in symbiotic relations to a concern for the spatial pattern in which such relations are expressed. Thus it permitted human ecology to be construed as merely the description of distributions of social phenomena. Accordingly, much of the research identified as human ecology has consisted in compiling inventories of the observable characteristics of community life and in plotting their distributions on maps. It is sometimes difficult to understand why this kind of work should be called anything other than geography, except possibly-out of deference to the geographers-because of the inferior cartographicskill which is often exhibited. The mapping of phenomena, however, is usually a first step in the establishing of correlations between crime, delinquency, domestic discord, mental disorders, etc., on the one hand, and housing -conditions, recreational facilities, proximity to city center, and other physical features, on the other hand.'7 But so far as the determination of the degree of correlationis the sole aim of the study, which seems to be the rule rather than the exception, it is not ecological; it is rather more in the nature of a statistical study in psychological behaviorism. The prevalence of the use of the word ecology in connection with such work as this has been so great that it has come to be regarded, in some quarters, as a "method" to be comparedand contrasted with
16 R. D. McKenzie, "The Ecological Approach to the Study of the Human Community," loc. cit., pp. 63-64. 17 E.g., A. W. Lind, "Some Ecological Patterns of Community Disorganization in Honolulu," Amer. J. Sociol., XXXVI (Sept., 1930), 206-20; E. S. Longmoor and E. F. Young, "Ecological Interrelationships of Juvenile Delinquency, Dependency, and Population Mobility," Amer. J. Sociol., XLI (March, 1936), 598610; and Stuart A. Queen, "The Ecological Study of Mental Disorders," Amer. Sociol. Rev., 5 (April, 1940) 201-10.

ECOLOGY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY or redefinitionof the nature and scope of a subject for study. It is desirable, then, in returning to the original question, to begin with a review of the rudiments of general ecology. Briefly stated, ecology is concerned with the elemental problem of how growing, multiplying beings maintain themselvesin a constantly changing but ever restricted environment.19 It is based on the fundamental assumption that life is a continuous struggle for adjustment of organism to environment. However, the manifest interrelatedness of living forms, which leads students to speak of the "web of life," suggests that adjustment, far from being the action of independent organisms, is a mutual or collective phenomenon. Drawing together the relevant facts, it seems that the inevitable crowding of living forms upon limitedresources produces a complex action and reaction of organism with environment and organism with organism in the course of which individuals become related to one another in ways conducive to a more effective utilization of the habitat. As the division of labor which thus develops approaches equilibrium, such that the number of organisms engaged in each of the several activities is sufficient to provide all the needs that are represented, the aggregate of associated individuals assumes the aspect of a compact viable entity, a superorganism, in fact. The (biotic) community, as such a functionally or symbiotically20 integrated population may properly be called, is in effect a collective response to the habitat; it constitutes the adjustment, in the fullest sense of the term, of organism to environment. The subject of ecological inquiry then is the community, the form and development of which are studied with particularreference to the limiting and supporting factors of the environment.21
19Environment, as used here, pertains to the physical and mechanical conditions of the habitat. It includes everything but the behavior of the organisms themselves. 20 Symbiosis may be defined as the mutually beneficial living together of unlike forms. 21 This definition differs but slightly from others. For example: (1) Ecology is the science of "the correlations between all organisms living together in one and the same locality and their adaptations to their surroundings." (Ernest Haeckel, The History of Creation, II, New York, 1896, p. 354); (2) "Ecology is the science of the relation of organisms to their surroundings, living as well as non-living; it is the science of the 'domestic economy' of plants and animals." (R. Hesse, W. C. Allee, and K. P. Schmidt, Ecological

403

Ecology, in other words, is a study of the morphology of collective life in both its static and its dynamic aspects. It attempts to determine the nature of community structure in general, the types of communities that appear in different habitats, and the specific sequence of change in community development. Two elements, one implicit and the other explicit, in the conception as outlined here merit special emphasis. Not immediately evident perhaps, though nevertheless of basic importance, is the fact that the units of observation, i.e., the data, are neither physiological processes nor anatomical structures but are rather the activities of organisms. Taxonomic characteristics are relevant only so far as they serve as indexes of behavior traits.22 "When an ecologist says 'there goes a badger' writes Elton, "he should include in his thoughts some definite idea of the animal's place in the community to which it belongs, just as if he had said 'there goes the vicar.' "23 Thus if the term species and species designations recur frequently in ecological discussion, it is simply because that is the most convenient way of referring to the expected or observed occupations of the organisms denoted. Secondly, as already indicated, life viewed ecologically is an aggregate rather than an individual phenomenon. The individual enters into ecological theory as a postulate and into ecological investigation as a unit of measurement; but as an object of special study he belongs to other disciplines, e.g., physiology, genetics, psychology, etc. The focus of attention in ecology is upon the population which is either organized or in process of becoming organized. This cannot be too
Animal Geography,New York, 1937, p. 6.); (3) " . . . the essence of ecology lies in its giving the fullest possible value to the habitat as cause and the community as effect, the two constituting the basic phases of a unit process." (F. E. Clements and V. E. Shelford, BioEcology, New York, 1939, p. 30.); and (4) "The descriptive study of the interrelations between co-existing species, and, more generally, their environment, is the province of ecology." (A. J. Lotka, "Contact Points of Population Study with Related Branches of Science," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 80, Feb., 1939, p. 611). 22 Cf. H. C. Cowles,- "An Ecological Aspect of the Conception of Species," The American Naturalist, XLII (1905), 265-71. 23 Charles Elton, Animal Ecology (New York, 1927), p. 64.

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SOCIAL FORCES the descriptive study of the adjustment of human populations to the conditions of their respective physical environments. The necessity that life be lived in a specific place and time, operating upon man as it does upon other organisms, produces an inescapable compulsion to adjustment which increases as population*increases or as the opportunities for life decrease. And out of the adaptive strivings of aggregated individuals there develops, consciously or unconsciously,an organization of interdependencies which constitutes the population a coherent functional entity. The human community, in other words, is basically an adaptive mechanism; it is the means whereby a population utilizes and maintains itself in its habitat. Human ecology, then, may be defined more fully as the study of the development and the form of communal structure as it occurs in varying environmental contexts. The human community, of course, is more than just an organization of symbiotic relationships and to that extent there are limitations to the scope of human ecology. Man's collective life involves, in greater or less degree, a psychological and a moral as well as a symbiotic integration. But these, so far as they are distinguishable, should be regarded as complementing aspects of the same thing rather than as separate phases or segments of the community. Sustenance activities and interrelations are inextricably interwoven with sentiments, value systems, and other ideational constructs. Human ecology is restricted in scope then not by any real or assumed qualitative differences in behavior but simply by the manner in which its problem is stated. The question of how men relate themselves to one another in order to live in their habitat yields a description of communal structure in terms of its overt and visible features. It does not, however, provide explanations of all the many ramifications of human interrelationships. The external and descriptive approach of ecology is ill-suited to the direct study of the psychological counterpart of symbiosis, although it may serve as a fruitful source of hypotheses concerning that aspect of the community. It may be helpful to call attention to the fact that the problems of human ecology, and ecology in general, are basically population problems. The broad question, as previously indicated, concerns the adjustment of population to the resourcesand other physical conditions of the habitat. This resolves itself into a number of related problems, such as: (1) the succession of changes by which an

strongly emphasized, for it places ecology squarely in the category of, social science. Human ecology, like plant and animal ecology, represents a special application of the general viewpoint to a particular class of living things. It involves both a recognition of the fundamental unity of animate nature and an awareness that there is differentiation within that unity. Man is an organism and as such he is dependent on the same resources, confronted with the same elementary problems, and displays in essential outline the same mode of response to life conditions as is observed in other forms of life. Thus the extension of patterns of thought and techniques of investigation developed in the study of the collective life of lower organisms to the study of man is a logical consummation of the ecological point of view. One important qualification is necessary, however; the extraordinary degree of flexibility of human behavior makes for a complexity and a dynamics in the human community without counterpart elsewhere in the organic world. It is this that sets man apart as an object of special inquiry and gives rise to a human as distinct from a general ecology. While to reason from "pismires to parliaments" would do violence to the facts, it is nevertheless necessary to keep the phenomenon of culture in proper perspective. When man by virtue of his culture-producing capacity is regarded as an entirely unique type of organism the distortion is no less acute than if this quality were completely ignored. Human behavior, in all its complexity and variability,' is but further evidence of the tremendous potential for adjustment inherent in life. Culture is nothing more than a way of referring to the prevailing techniques by which a population maintains itself in its habitat. The component parts of human culture are therefore identical in principle with the appetency of the bee for honey, the nest-building activities of birds, and the hunting habits of carnivora. To argue that the latter are instinctive while the former are not is to beg the question. Ecology is concerned less now with how habits are acquired, than with the functions they serve and the relationshipsthey involve. Thus despite the great difference between the behavior of men and that of lower forms of life-a difference which appears to be of degree rather of kind, the approach described as general ecology may be applied to the study of man without radical alteration. In simplest terms, human ecology is

PRAGMATISM aggregate passes from a mere polyp-like formation into a community of interdependencies; (2) the ways in which the developing community is affected by the size, composition, and rate of growth or decline of the population; (3) the significance of migration for both the development of the community and the maintenance of community stability; and (4) the relative numbers in the various functions composing the communal structure, together with the factors which make for change in the existing equilibrium and the ways in which such change occurs. Clearly, human ecology has much in common with every other social science. The problem with which it deals underlies that of each of theseveral specialized studies of human social life. Its data are drawn from the same sources and it employs many of the same techniques of investigation.

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The points of convergence are, in fact, too numerous to detail in this paper.24 There is no basis therefore to conclude from what has been said that human ecology is an autonomous social science: it is quite unlikely that there is any autonomy in science. The distinctive feature of the study lies in the conception of the adjustment of man to habitat as a process of community development. Whereas this may be an implicit assumption in most social science disciplines, it is for human ecology the principal working hypothesis. Thus human ecology might well be regardedas the basic
social science.
24 See R. D. McKenzie, "Demography, Human Geography, and Human Ecology", in L. L. Bernard (ed.), The Fields and Methods of Sociology (New York, 1934), pp. 52-66; and A. J. Lotka, loc. cit.

PRAGMATISM: A STUDY IN MIDDLE CLASS IDEOLOGY

presents two questions: (1) Why is such a trend considered dangerous? (2) What are the conITHIN the past few years,an increasing W ditions which have led to acceptance and rejection trend in American middle class thought of pragmatism? has centered about a searching criticism It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss of the basic concepts of pregmatism. Robert adequately the first of these problems. SumHutchins in education, Archibald MacLeish in marizing briefly, however, Dewey has argued that the arts, Reinhold Niebuhr in theology, Eliseo the moral and political consequences which follow Vivas in philosophy, to mention a few, have openly logically from anti-naturalistic assumptions are attacked the belief that scientific method was a inconsistent with democracy.3 Sidney Hook has sufficient tool for understanding human experience analyzed non-pragmatic theories psychologically, and directing social action.' The invidious terms and has asserted that under the overwhelmingpres"anti-naturalism," "defeatism,'" "obscurantism" sures and frustrations of modern life, these theories have been used by such eminent people as John offer irresponsible escape from intellectual reDewey, Ruth Benedict, Sidney Hook,andErnest sponsibility.4 Nagel to characterize these diverse forms of critiThese hypotheses suggest that studies are needed cism, and give some indication of the seriousness in social organizationand ideology,5particularly in with which the development is regarded.2 3 This view is most fully developed by Dewey in his To the student of social science, this evidence. I
Catholic position, although non-pragmatic, is not included here since the Catholic refutation of pragmatism has not developed out of recent experience. 2Articles by Dewey, Benedict, Hook, and Nagel, concerning this problem appear in Partisan Review, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1943, under the title, "The New Failure of Nerve."
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Freedom and Culture (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1939). 4Sidney Hook, "The New Failure of Nerve," Partisan Review, 1 (1943). Hook uses such expressions as "those who have been panicked into new varieties of transcendental consolation." (italics mine.) 6 The use of the term "ideology" here differs from Mannheim's restricted use of it to include only those