CIRCUIT COMPONENTS 6.

1 IC555 TIMER

DESCRIPTION The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the very first and only commercial timer IC available. The 555 is a monolithic timing circuit that can produce accurate and highly stable time delays or oscillations. It has an adjustable duty cycle ,timing is from microseconds to hours. It has a high current output ,it can source or sink 200 miliamperes . It can operate in one of the two modes either as a monostable (one-shot) multivibrator or as an astable (free running) multivibrator .It can be used in dc-dc converters, digital logic probes, waveform generators, analog frequency meters and tachometers, temperature measurement and control ,infrared transmitters ,burglar and toxic gas alarms ,voltage regulators ,electric eyes and many others.

THE 555 INTERNAL CIRCUITS

PIN OUT The 555 comes in 2 packages, either the round metal-can called the 'T' package or the more familiar 8-pin DIP 'V' package. The 556 timer is a dual 555 version and comes in a 14-pin DIP package, the 558 is a quad version with four 555's also in a 14 pin DIP package.

PIN DESCRIPTION Pin1: Ground. All voltages are measured with respect to this terminal. Pin2: Trigger. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external trigger pulse applied to this pin. The output is low if the voltage at this pin is greater than 2/3 VCC. When a negative going pulse of amplitude greater than 1/3 VCC is applied to this pin, comparator 2 output goes low, which in turn switches the output of the timer high. The output remains high as long as the trigger terminal is held at a low voltage. Pin3: Output. There are two ways by which a load can be connected to the output terminal: either between pin 3 and ground or between pin 3 and supply voltage +VCC. When the output is low the load current flows through the load connected between pin 3 and +VCC into the output terminal and is called sink current. The current through the grounded load is zero when the output is low. For this reason the load connected between pin 3 and +VCC is called the normally on load and that connected between pin 3 and ground is called normally off-load. On the other hand, when the output is high the current through the load connected between pin 3 and +VCC is zero. The output terminal supplies current to the normally off load. This current is called source current. The maximum value of sink or source current is 200mA. Pin4: Reset. The 555 timer can be reset (disabled) by applying a negative pulse to this pin. When the reset function is not in use, the reset terminal should be connected to +VCC to avoid any possibility of false triggering. Pin5: Control Voltage. An external voltage applied to this terminal changes the threshold as well as trigger voltage. Thus by imposing a voltage on this pin or by connecting a pot between this pin and ground, the pulse width of the output waveform can be varied. When not used, the control pin should be bypassed to ground with a 0.01F Capacitor to prevent any noise problems. Pin6: Threshold. This is the non-inverting input of comparator 1, which monitors the voltage across the external capacitor. When the voltage at this pin is greater than or equal to the threshold voltage 2/3 VCC, the output of comparator 1 goes high, which in turn switches the output of the timer low.

Pin7: Discharge. This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor Q1. When the output is high Q1 is OFF and acts as an open circuit to external capacitor C connected across it. On the other hand, when the output is low, Q1 is saturated and acts as a short circuit, shorting out the external capacitor C to ground. Pin8: +VCC. The supply voltage of +5V to + 18V is applied to this pin with respect to ground.

OPERATION Initially when the circuit is in the stable state i.e , when the output is low, transistor Q1 is ON and the capacitor C is shorted to ground. Upon the application of a negative trigger pulse to pin 2, transistor Q1 is turned OFF, which releases the short circuit across the external capacitor C and drives the output high. The capacitor C now starts charging up towards VCC through R. When the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 VCC, comparator 1s output switches from low to high, which in turn drives the output to its low state via the output of the flip-flop. At the same time the output of the flip-flop turns transistor Q1 ON and hence the capacitor C rapidly discharges through the transistor. The output of the monostable remains low until a trigger pulse is again applied. Then the cycle repeats. The pulse width of the trigger input must be smaller than the expected pulse width of the output waveform. Also the trigger pulse must be a negative going input signal with amplitude larger than 1/3 VCC. The time during which the output remains high is given by T= 1.1 RC seconds. Where R is in Ohms and C is in Farads. Once triggered, the circuits output will remain in the high state until the set time, T elapses. The output will not change its state even if an input trigger is applied again during this time interval T. The circuit can be reset during the timing cycle by applying negative pulse to the reset terminal. The output will remain in the low state until a trigger is again applied.

OPERATING MODES The 555 timer has two basic operational modes: one shot and astable. In the oneshot mode, the 555 acts like a monostable multivibrator. A monostable is said to have a single stable state--that is the off state. Whenever it is triggered by an input pulse, the monostable switches to its temporary state. It remains in that state for a period of time determined by an RC network. It then returns to its stable state. In other words, the monostable circuit generates a single pulse of fixed time duration each time it receives and input trigger pulse. Thus the name one-shot. One-shot multivibrators are used for turning some circuit or external component on or off for a specific length of time. It is also used to generate delays. When multiple oneshots are cascaded, a variety of sequential timing pulses can be generated. MONOSTABLE OPERATION In the basic circuit of the 555 connected as a monostable multivibrator an external RC network is connected between the supply voltage and ground. The junction of the resistor and capacitor is connected to the threshold input which is the input to the upper comparator. The internal discharge transistor is also connected to the junction of the resistor and the capacitor. An input trigger pulse is applied to the trigger input, which is the input to the lower comparator. With that circuit configuration, the control flip-flop is initially reset. Therefore, the output voltage is near zero volts. The signal from the control flip-flop causes T1 to conduct and act as a short circuit across the external capacitor. For that reason, the capacitor cannot charge. During that time, the input to the upper comparator is near zero volts causing the comparator output to keep the control flip-flop reset.

ASTABLE OPERATION The other basic operational mode of the 555 is as astable multivibrator. An astable multivibrator is simply an oscillator. The astable multivibrator generates a continuous stream of rectangular off-on pulses that switch between two voltage levels. The frequency of the pulses and their duty cycle are dependent upon the RC network values.

Fig shows the 555 connected as an astable multivibrator. Both the trigger and threshold inputs to the two comparators are connected together and to the external capacitor. The capacitor charges toward the supply voltage through the two resistors, R1 and R2. The discharge pin (7) connected to the internal transistor is connected to the junction of those two resistors. When power is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor will be uncharged; therefore, both the trigger and threshold inputs will be near zero volts. The lower comparator sets the control flip-flop causing the output to switch high. That also turns off transistor T1. That allows the capacitor to begin charging through R1 and R2. As soon as the charge on the capacitor reaches 2/3 of the supply voltage, the upper comparator will trigger causing the flip-flop to reset. That causes the output to switch low. Transistor T1 also conducts. The effect of T1 conducting causes resistor R2 to be connected across the external capacitor. Resistor R2 is effectively connected to ground through internal transistor T1. The result of that is that the capacitor now begins to discharge through R2.The voltage across the capacitor reaches 1/3 of the supply voltage, the lower comparator is triggered. The control flip-flop to set and the output to go high.T1 cuts off and again the capacitor begins to charge. The cycle continues to repeat with the capacitor alternately charging

and discharging, as the comparators cause the flip-flop to be repeatedly set and reset. The resulting output is a continuous stream of rectangular pulses. The frequency of operation of the astable circuit is dependent upon the values of R1, R2, and C. The frequency can be calculated with the formula: f = 1/ (.693 x C x (R1 + 2 x R2)) The Frequency f is in Hz, R1 and R2 are in ohms, and C is in farads. The time duration between pulses is known as the 'period', and usually designated with at. The pulse is on for t1 seconds, then off for t2 seconds. The total period (t) is t1 + t2 . The time intervals for the on and off portions of the output depend upon the values of R1 and R2. The ratio of the time duration when the output pulse is high to the total period is known as the duty-cycle. The duty-cycle can be calculated with the formula: D = t1/t = (R1 + R2) / (R1 + 2R2) You can calculate t1 and t2 times with the formulas below: t1 = .693(R1+R2)C t2 = .693 x R2 x C The 555 can produce duty-cycles in the range of approximately 55 to 95%. A duty-cycle of 80% means that the output pulse is on or high for 80% of the total period.

6.2 IR LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs):

There are a couple key differences in the electrical characteristics of infrared LEDs versus visible light LEDs. Infrared LEDs have a lower forward voltage, and a higher rated current compared to visible LEDs. This is due to differences in the material properties of the junction. A typical drive current for an infrared LED can be as high as 50 milliamps, so dropping in a visible LED as a replacement for an infrared LED could be a problem with some circuit designs. THERMAL RUN-AWAY When a junction gets warmer, the current through it at a given voltage will increase. The increased current in turn heats the junction further, and the problem gets worse. Eventually, if nothing limits the current, the junction will fail due to the heat. Because of thermal runaway, its important to use some current limiting circuit even with a regulated voltage source.