A SEMINAR REPORT ON

LESS KNOWN FACTS ABOUT CT's & PT'S

SUBMITTED TO PROF. SAURABH CHANANA
SUBMITTED BY RAHUL TANEJA

01

References:
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Instrument+Transformer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_transformer http://www.paranaelectrotech.com/technicalliterature/articleonferro-resonance.php http://www.powerelectricalblog.com/2007/03/ferro-resonance-introductionclassificat.html

Instrument Transformer :
In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.

an electrical transformer in which the current or voltage being measured acts on the primary winding of the transformer; the secondary (step-down) winding is connected to measuring instruments and protective relays. Instrument transformers are used primarily in power switchboards and in high-voltage AC circuits to ensure safety in measuring current intensity, voltage, power, and energy. One of the terminals of the secondary winding is grounded, as a protective measure in cases of insulation breakdown on the high-voltage side. Instrument transformers make possible the measurement of various magnitudes of electrical quantities with devices whose range of measurement extends to 100 watts (W) and 5 amperes (A). A distinction is made between instrument potential (used with voltmeters, frequency meters, parallel circuits of wattmeter's, energy meters, phase meters, and voltage relays) and instrument current transformers (used with ammeters, series circuits of wattmeter's, energy meters, phase meters, and current relays). Connection diagrams of instrument transformers in electric circuits are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1. Connection diagram of an instrument potential transformer

Figure 2. Connection diagram of an instrument CT In an instrument potential transformer (Figure 1), the voltage U1 being measured is fed to the terminals of the primary winding; the winding W1 is connected in parallel with the load. A secondary voltage U2 is fed from the winding W2 to a voltmeter or to the voltage circuits of measuring instruments and protective relays. The accuracy of measurement is defined by a percentage error, which determines the accuracy of reproduction for the amplitude of the voltage being measured, and by the angle error in degrees. The angle error is equal to the angle between the vector of primary voltage and to the vector of secondary voltage, rotated by 180; it determines the accuracy of phase reproduction. Most instrument voltage transformers for high voltages are manufactured in a sectionalized, oil-filled design. The primary winding W1 of an instrument current transformer (Figure 2) is connected in series with the control circuit, which carries an alternating current I1 the secondary winding W2 is connected in series with an ammeter or other measuring instrument. The accuracy of an instrument current transformer is defined by a percentage ratio between the difference of the value of the reduced secondary current and the value of the actual primary current to the value of the actual primary current.

Fig 3. common use of instrument transformers

Constructional Features CT:

Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core, which then induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary current. The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around a silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur. Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical examples of low voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either ring type or plastic

molded case. High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window. The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and affecting accuracy.

a.Window type b. Bar type

b. Bar type

c. Wound type

Fig 4. Types of current transformers

Principle of operation:
A current transformer is defined as "as an instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially proportional to the primary current (under normal conditions of operation) and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections." This highlights the accuracy requirement of the current transformer but also important is the isolating function, which means no matter what the system voltage the secondary circuit need be insulated only for a low voltage. The current transformer works on the principle of variable flux. In the "ideal" current transformer, secondary current would be exactly equal (when multiplied by the turns ratio) and opposite to the primary current. But, as in the voltage transformer, some of the primary current or the primary ampere-turns is utilized for magnetizing the core, thus leaving less than the actual primary ampere turns to be "transformed" into the secondary ampere-turns. This naturally introduces an error in the transformation. The error is classified into two-the current or ratio error and the phase error.

Usage:
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical utility's watthour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service and single-phase services greater than 200 amps. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation between metering and protection circuits, and allows current transformers with different characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices.

Safety Precautions:
Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause arcing. The high voltage produced will compromise operator and equipment safety and permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.

Accuracy:
The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:

Burden Burden class/saturation class Rating factor Load External electromagnetic fields Temperature and Physical configuration. The selected tap, for multi-ratio CTs

For the IEC standard, accuracy classes for various types of measurement are set out in IEC 60044-1, Classes 0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1, and 3. The class designation is an approximate measure of the CT's accuracy. The ratio (primary to secondary current) error of a Class 1 CT is 1% at rated current; the ratio error of a Class 0.5 CT is 0.5% or less. Errors in phase are also important especially in power measuring circuits, and each class has an allowable maximum phase error for a specified load impedance. Current transformers used for protective relaying also have accuracy requirements at overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate performance of relays during system faults.

Burden:
The secondary load of a current transformer is usually called the "burden" to distinguish it from the load of the circuit whose current is being measured. The burden, in a CT metering circuit is the (largely resistive) impedance presented to its secondary winding. Typical burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA, 10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30 VA, 45 VA & 60 VA. As for ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 can tolerate up to 0.2 of impedance in the metering circuit before its output current is no longer a fixed ratio to the primary current. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switchblocks, meters and intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess burden in a current measurement circuit is the conductor between the meter and the CT. Often, substation meters are located significant distances from the meter cabinets and the excessive length of small gauge conductor creates a large resistance. This problem can be solved by using CT with 1 ampere secondaries which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its metering devices

Rating Factor:
Rating factor is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT can be multiplied to determine its absolute maximum measurable primary current. Conversely, the minimum primary current a CT can accurately measure is "light load," or 10% of the nominal current (there are, however, special CTs designed to measure accurately currents as small as 2% of the nominal current). The rating factor of a CT is largely dependent upon ambient temperature. Most CTs have rating factors for 35 degrees Celsius and 55 degrees Celsius. It is important to be mindful of ambient temperatures and resultant rating factors when CTs are installed inside pad-mounted transformers or poorly ventilated mechanical rooms. Recently, manufacturers have been moving towards lower nominal primary currents with greater rating factors. This is made possible by the development of more efficient ferrites and their corresponding hysteresis curves.

Short Time Rating:

The value of primary current (in kA) that the CT should be able to withstand both thermally and dynamically without damage to the windings, with the secondary circuit being short-circuited. The time specified is usually 1 or 3 seconds.

Instrument security factor (factor of security):

This typically takes a value of less than 5 or less than 10 though it could be much higher if the ratio is very low. If the factor of security of the CT is 5, it means that the composite error of the metering CT at 5 times the rated primary current is equal to or greater than 10%. This means that heavy currents on the primary are not passed on to the secondary circuit and instruments are therefore protected. In the case of double ratio CT's, FS is applicable for the lowest ratio only.

Summation CT:
When the currents in a number of feeders need not be individually metered but summated to a single meter or instrument, a summation current transformer can be used. The summation CT consists of two or more primary windings which are connected to the feeders to be summated, and a single secondary winding, which feeds a current proportional to the summated primary current. A typical ratio would be 5+5+5/ 5A, which means that three primary feeders of 5 are to be summated to a single 5A meter.

Core balance CT (CBCT):

The CBCT, also known as a zero sequence CT, is used for earth leakage and earth fault protection. The concept is similar to the RVT. In the CBCT, the three core cable or three single cores of a three phase system pass through the inner diameter of the CT. When the system is fault free, no current flows in the secondary of the CBCT. When there is an earth fault, the residual current (zero phase sequence current) of the system flows through the secondary of the

CBCT and this operates the relay. In order to design the CBCT, the inner diameter of the CT, the relay type, the relay setting and the primary operating current need to be furnished.

CT Classification for relaying

Over the years many standards for CT classification have been developed in North America and Europe. Protection class CTs are assumed to be able to supply 20 times its rated secondary current to the relay. That means for a 5 amp rated secondary the CT must be able to supply 100 Amps of current, and for a 1 amp rated secondary the CT must be able to supply 20 Amps of current. 10 C 400

The operating principals of CTs are specified in a format such as this. The first number represents the maximum amount of error, listed in as a percentage, that this CT will produce. Therefore, the 10 in our example stands for no more than 10 percent error. The second item, which is always a letter, can either be a T, C, K, L, or H. If the letter is a T which stands for test, it means that the CT accuracy can only be determined by testing the CT. Current transformers with non-distributed windings fit in this category. If the letter is a C or a K which stands for Calculated, it means the CT accuracy can be determined by performing calculation using given excitation characteristics. CTs with fully distributed windings, (bushing CTs for instance) fit in this category. If the letter is an L, this indicates that the CT has a Low internal secondary impedance, If the letter is an H, this indicates that the CT has a high internal secondary impedance,

Tests
A number of routine and type tests have to be conducted on CT s before they can meet the standards specified above. The tests can be classified as : a.

Accuracy tests:To determine whether the errors of the CT are within specified limits.

b.

Dielectric insulation tests:Such as power frequency withstand voltage test on primary and secondary windings for one minute, inter-turn insulation test at power frequency voltage, impulse tests with 1.2u/50 wave, and partial discharge tests (for voltage >=6.6kv) to determine whether the discharge is below the specified limits.

c. Temperature rise tests. d. Short time current tests. e. Verification of terminal markings and polarity.

Typical specification for a 11 kV CT

System Insulation Ratio: Core Core 1: 2: level 200/1 1A, 1 voltage metering, A, voltage:11 (ILV) 1 15 VA/class 15 : 12/28/75 0.577 1, kV kV A ISF<10 VA/5P10

protection,

Core 3: 0.577 A, Class PS, KPV>= 150 V, Imag at Vk/2 <=30 mA, RCT at 75 C<=2 ohms Short time rating:20 kA for 1 second

Principle of operation VT:

The standards define a voltage transformer as one in which "the secondary voltage is substantially proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections." This, in essence, means that the voltage transformer has to be as close as possible to the "ideal" transformer. In an "ideal" transformer, the secondary voltage vector is exactly opposite and equal to the primary voltage vector, when multiplied by the turns ratio. In a "practical" transformer, errors are introduced because some current is drawn for the magnetization of the core and because of drops in the primary and secondary windings due to leakage reactance and winding resistance. One can thus talk of a voltage error, which is the amount by which the voltage is less than the applied primary voltage ,and the phase error, which is the phase angle by which the reversed secondary voltage vector is displaced from the primary voltage vector

Rated burden VT:

This is the load in terms of volt-amperes (VA) posed by the devices in the secondary circuit on the VT. This includes the burden imposed by the connecting leads. The VT is required to be accurate at both the rated burden and 25% of the rated burden.

Accuracy class required:

The transformation errors that are permissible, including voltage (ratio) error and phase angle error. Phase error is specified in minutes. Typical accuracy classes are Class 0.5, Class 1 and Class 3. Both metering and protection classes of accuracy are specified. In a metering VT, the VT is required to be within the specified errors from 80% to 120% of the rated voltage. In a protection VT, the VT is required to be accurate from 5% up to the rated voltage factor times the rated voltage.

Rated voltage factor:

Depending on the system in which the VT is to be used, the rated voltage factors to be specified are different. The table below is adopted from Indian and International standards. Rated factor voltage Rated time Method of connecting primary winding in system

1.2

Continuous

Between phases in any network Between transformer star-point and earth in any network

1.2 1.5

Continuous for 30 seconds

Between phase and earth in an effectively system earthed neutral

1.2 1.9

Continuous for 30 seconds

Between phase and earth in a non-effectively earthed neutral system tripping with automatic fault

1.2 1.9

Continuous for 8 hours

Between phase and earth in an isolated neutral system

without automatic fault tripping or in a resonant earthed

system without automatic fault tripping

Temperature class of insulation:

The permissible temperature rise over the specified ambient temperature. Typically, classes E, B and F.

Residual Voltage Transformer (RVT):

RVTs are used for residual earth fault protection and for discharging capacitor banks. The secondary residual voltage winding is connected in open delta. Under normal conditions of operation, there is no voltage output across the residual voltage winding. When there is an earth fault, a voltage is developed across the open delta winding which activates the relay. When using a three phase RVT, the primary neutral should be earthed, as otherwise third harmonic voltages will appear across the residual winding. 3 phase RVTs typically have 5 limb construction.

Tests:
A number of routine and type tests have to be conducted on VT s before they can meet the standards specified above. The tests can be classified as: a.

Accuracy tests:To determine whether the errors of the VT are within specified limits

b.

Dielectric insulation tests:Such as power frequency withstand voltage test on primary and secondary windings for one minute, induced over-voltage test , impulse tests with 1.2u/50u wave, and partial discharge tests (for voltage>=6.6 kV) to determine whether the discharge is below the specified limits.

c. Temperature rise tests d. Short circuit tests e. Verification of terminal markings and polarity

Typical specification for a 11 kV VT:

System Insulation Number Vector Ratio: Burden: Accuracy: Group: 11 level voltage: voltage of Star kV/ 100 Class (ILV) : phases: / 110 11 12 /28/75 kV kV Three Star V VA 0.5

Voltage Factor: 1.2 continuous and 1.5 for 30 seconds

Ferro-resonance:
The failure of single phase transformers (VTs) operating in unearthed power system has remained a mystery for many years to designers as well as system engineers. The phenomena known as FERRO-resonance or neutral inversion or Neutral instability The term "Ferro-resonance ", which appeared in the literature for the first time in 1920, refers to all oscillating phenomena occurring in an electric circuit which must contain at least:

a saturable),

non-linear

inductance

(ferromagnetic

and

a capacitor, a voltage source (generally sinusoidal), low losses.

Power networks are made up of a large number of saturable inductances (power transformers, voltage measurement inductive transformers (VT), shunt reactors), as well as capacitors cables, long lines, capacitor voltage transformers, series or shunt capacitor banks, voltage grading

capacitors in circuit-breakers,metalclad substations). They thus present scenarios under which ferroresonance can occur.

The main feature of this phenomenon is that more than one stable steady state response is possible for the same set of the network parameters. Transients, lightningovervoltages, energizing or deenergizing transformers or loads, occurrence or removal of faults, live works, etc...may initiate ferroresonance. The response can suddenly jump from one normal steady state response (sinusoidal at the same frequency as the source) to an another ferroresonant steady state response characterised by high overvoltages and harmonic levels which can lead to serious damage to the equipment.

A practical example of such behaviour (surprising for the uninitiated) is the deenergization of a voltage transformer by the opening of a circuit-breaker. As the transformer is still fed through grading capacitors accross the circuit-breaker, this may lead either to zero voltage at the transformer terminals or to permanent highly distorted voltage of an amplitude well over normal voltage.

To

prevent

the

consequences

of

ferroresonance

(untimely

tripping

of

protection

devices,destruction of equipment such as power transformers or voltage transformers, production losses,...), it is necessary to:

understand the phenomenon, predict it, identify it and avoid or eliminate it.

Little is known about this complex phenomenon as it is rare and cannot be analysed or predicted by the computation methods (based on linear approximation) normally used by electrical

engineers. This lack of knowledge means that it is readily considered responsible for a number of unexplained destructions or malfunctionings of equipment.

A distinction drawn between resonance and ferroresonance will highlight the specific and some times disconcerting characteristics of ferroresonance.

Practical examples of electrical power system configurations at risk from ferroresonance are used to identify and emphasise the variety of potentially dangerous configurations.Well-informed system designers avoid putting themselves in such risky situations.

Difference between a ferroresonant and linear resonant ccircuit: The main differences between a ferroresonant circuit and a linear resonant circuit are for a given :

Its resonance possibility in a wide range of values of C, the frequency of the voltage and current waves which may be different from that of the sinusoidal voltage source,

the

existence

of

several

stable

steady

state

responses for a given configuration and values

Contents
Instrument Transformer Current Transformers
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. Constructional Features Principle of operation Usage Safety Precautions Accuracy Burden Rating factor Short time rating CT Classification for relaying Tests

Voltage Transformer
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Principle of operation Rated burden Accuracy class required Rated voltage factor Residual Voltage Transformer Tests Ferro-resonance