CHAPTER 1 Measurement

2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited

Chapter 1 Measurement

1.1 1.2

What is Physics? Physical Quantities and SI Units

1.3
1.4

Measurement of Length
Measurement of Time

1.1 What is Physics?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to: explain the meaning of Physics;

explain how the laws of Physics are verified.

1.1 What is Physics?

Definition and Domain
Physics is the study of matter and energy, and the interaction between the two. The domain of Physics ranges from something as large as the entire universe and planets, to something as small as an atom and its constituents.

galaxy

planet

atom

1.1 What is Physics?

1.1 What is Physics?

Great Physicists
Galileo Galilei (15641642) is known as the father of modern physics. He made valuable contributions to astronomy. Ren Descartes (15961650) founded geometry, the study of angles (an important mathematical concept in physics).

Sir Isaac Newton (16431727) is known as the father of classical mechanics. He discovered the laws of motion and gravity.

Albert Einstein (18791955) made many discoveries. He won a Nobel prize for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. However, he is more famous for his theory of special relativity.

Chapter 1 Measurement

1.1 1.2

What is Physics? Physical Quantities and SI Units

1.3
1.4

Measurement of Length
Measurement of Time

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to: show understanding that all physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit; list the following base quantities and their SI units: length (m), mass (kg), time (s), electric current (A) and temperature (K);

use prefixes and symbols to indicate very large or very small SI quantities.

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Recall
Consider the following: 5 apples 50 cm3 of water displaced when some apples are submerged in water 10 kg of apples

What do the different quantities and units tell us?

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

What is a Physical Quantity?

A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. It consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.

Examples
5 kg: 5 __ is the numerical magnitude. kg is the unit. __ 10 is the numerical magnitude. __ cm is the unit. __

10 cm:

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

SI Units
An SI unit is a unit of measurement in the International System of Units. SI is short for Systme International in French, which means International System in English. The aim of this system is to promote common understanding among scientists and merchants around the world.

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Base Quantities/Units
Base quantities are a set of independent physical quantities. All other physical quantities will be derived by the multiplication or division of two or more base quantities. The SI units of the base quantities are called base units.

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Base Quantities/Units

(Note: The candela is not mentioned in the syllabus.)

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Derived Quantities
A derived quantity is given by the multiplication or division of two or more base quantities. The unit of a derived quantity is given by the similar multiplication or division of the corresponding base units.

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Derived Quantities
Example 1
Area is obtained by the multiplication of two lengths. So, area is a derived quantity. The SI unit of area is: metre metre = the square metre, symbolised by m2.

Example 2
distance travelled Speed = time taken So, speed is a derived quantity. The SI unit of speed is: metre second i.e. the metre per second, symbolised by m s1.

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Multiples and Submultiples
The magnitudes of physical quantities can range from very big to very small. Examples The width of a hair is between 0.00002 m and 0.0002 m. The mass of a large truck can be 5 000 000 g. Writing many zeros: (a) is inconvenient; (b) carries a greater risk of miscounting the number of zeroes. So, prefixes are used to denote multiples or submultiples of an SI unit.

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Common Prefixes
Some common prefixes are listed in the table below.

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Use of Prefixes
Examples Express the following using the appropriate prefixes. (a) 5000 g = 5 103 g = 5 kg (since 103 ~ kilo) (b) 0.001 s = 1 103 s = 1 ms (since 103 ~ milli)

Try the following. 106 (c) 3 000 000 B = 3 ___ B = 3 M __B

(c) 0.000 000 019 s = 19 109 s = 19 n ___ __s (e) 15 J = 15 106 J = 0.000 015 J ____ _________ (f) 6 Gm = 6 109 m =6 000 000 000 m ___ ____________

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Worked Example
Express 30 km h1 in SI units.

Solution
The SI unit of speed is m s1. Recall that 1 km = 1 000 m and 1 h = 60 60 s. 1 km 1 = 1 km h 1h

1000 m 60 60 s h1

Therefore, 30 km

30 = ___

1000 m 60 60 s 1 8.3 m s ________

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Worked Example

Express (a) 50 cm3 in m3; (b) 50 m3 in cm3. Write your answer in standard form.
Solution
(a) 1 cm3 = 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm 1 m 1 cm = 100 1 1 1 m m m 3 = ______ ______ ______ 100 100 1 cm 100 = ______ 1 m3 106

1 m3 5 105 m3 106 So, 50 cm3 = 50 ______ = ___________

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Solution (continued)
1m (b) 1 m3 = ____ 1 m ____ ____ 1 m 1 m = 100 cm 100 cm 100 cm 100 cm 1 m3 = _______ _______ _______
6 3 = ______ 10 cm

50 So, 50 m3 = ___ 106cm3 ____ 7 = 5 10__ cm3

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Question

The human hair is about 20 m in diameter. What is the standard form of the radius in its SI unit?

10 m
radius

20 m
diameter

Chapter 1 Measurement

1.1 1.2

What is Physics? Physical Quantities and SI Units

1.3
1.4

Measurement of Length
Measurement of Time

1.3 Measurement of Length

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to: show an understanding of how the sizes of objects, such as an atom and the Earth, can range in orders of magnitude; describe how to measure a variety of lengths using the appropriate instruments (e.g. tape measure, metre rule, vernier calipers, micrometer screw gauge).

1.3 Measurement of Length Recall

Length is one of the seven base quantities.

What do we use to measure different lengths?

What are the sizes of common objects?

1.3 Measurement of Length Orders of Magnitude of Sizes

1.3 Measurement of Length Orders of Magnitude of Sizes

1.3 Measurement of Length IT Activity

Objective To see animated pictures of common biological and technological objects microscopically Instructions 1. Click to take a trip into the nano-world. Welcome aboard! http://www.nanoreisen.de/english/index.html
URL

2. At every stage, click on the expanding rectangle to magnify the spot and take a closer look at the structures in each new unexplored territory.

1.3 Measurement of Length Measuring Instruments

Instrument Tape measure Suitable magnitude of measurement A few metres e.g. dimension of a room Several centimetres e.g. width of a tabletop A few centimetres e.g. thickness of a laptop A few millimetres e.g. thickness of a coin

Metre rule

Vernier calipers

Micrometer screw gauge

1.3 Measurement of Length 1.3 Measurement of Length Precision of an Instrument

The precision of an instrument is the smallest unit that the instrument can measure.
For example, consider a metre rule.
1 mm 1 cm

The smallest difference in measurement made by the metre rule is 0.1 cm or 1 mm. Hence, the precision of the metre rule is 0.1 cm.

1.3 Measurement of Length

Measuring Accurately with the Metre Rule

Avoid parallax errors: Position your eyes such that your line of sight is perpendicular to the rule.

cm

cm

No parallax errors

Inaccurate measurement due to parallax errors

1.3 Measurement of Length

Measuring Accurately with the Metre Rule

Reduce random error: Repeat the measurement and take the average value of the measurements.
Correct any zero error: The 0 cm mark on the ruler may not be exactly at the end of the ruler. Avoid using the zero mark as a start point to take measurements. This is because wear and tear may make it unsuitable for measuring purposes.

1.3 Measurement of Length

Tape Measure

Precision: 0.1 cm or 1 mm

Use: Measuring a length of several metres and measuring the length of a curve.
Reasons for use: It has a range of a few metres and it is flexible. Precaution: Ensure that the tape is not slack or twisted.

1.3 Measurement of Length

Vernier Calipers The Parts and Their Functions

1.3 Measurement of Length How to Use Vernier Calipers

1.3 Measurement of Length Question

What is the precision of a pair of vernier calipers?

3.14 cm

3.1 cm

main scale

cm

vernier scale

1.3 Measurement of Length

Vernier Calipers Accuracy and Zero Error

For the reading to be accurate, there should be no zero error i.e. the two zero marks on the main scale and the vernier scale must form a straight line, as shown in the diagram below, when the jaws are completely closed.

The two zero marks coincide no zero error

1.3 Measurement of Length

Vernier Calipers Correcting Zero Errors
Should a zero error exist, correcting the error gives the accurate corrected reading.
Corrected reading = observed reading zero error

1.3 Measurement of Length Question

What are the zero errors for these vernier calipers?
1.
cm
1 2

2.
cm
1 2

1.3 Measurement of Length IT Activity (Group)

Objective To improve your competency in reading the vernier calipers. Instructions

1. In groups, go to
http://members.shaw.ca/ron.blond/Vern.APPLET/
URL

2. Click and drag to part the jaws a certain distance apart. 3.Determine the reading before checking against the given answer. 4. Repeat for five or more different readings.

1.3 Measurement of Length

Worked Example
Determine the length of the object.
cm

cm

Solution
Zero error = 0.01 cm Observed reading = 1.14 cm
Corrected reading = observed reading zero error = 1.14 cm (0.01 cm) = 1.14 cm + 0.01 cm = 1.15 cm

1.3 Measurement of Length Micrometer Screw Gauge

Precision: 0.001 cm Use: Measures very short lengths such as the diameters of wires or ball bearings Reason for use: Provides a precision of 0.001 cm for small measurements that fall within a suitable range

1.3 Measurement of Length Micrometer Screw Gauge

The following diagram shows the labelled parts of a micrometer screw gauge.
lock lever

1.3 Measurement of Length How to Use the Micrometer Screw Gauge

Turn the thimble until the anvil and spindle touch the object. Turn the ratchet until it clicks. Main scale reading = 8.5 mm

Thimble scale reading = 0.40 mm

Diameter = main scale reading + thimble scale reading = 8.5 mm + 0.40 mm = 8.90 mm

1.3 Measurement of Length Question

What is the precision of the micrometer screw gauge?

8.90 mm

1.3 Measurement of Length Micrometer Screw Gauge Zero Error

When the anvil touches the spindle as shown below,
anvil spindle

5 0 45

the reading should be 0.00 mm. Otherwise, the micrometer screw gauge has zero error.

1.3 Measurement of Length Micrometer Screw Gauge Correcting Zero Errors

1.3 Measurement of Length

Worked Example
The diameter of a wire is measured using a micrometer screw gauge. A student takes an initial zero reading and then a reading of the diameter. What is the corrected diameter of the wire in mm?

Initial zero reading

Reading of diameter

Solution
Zero error = 0.06 mm Reading = 5.0 mm + 0.47 mm = 5.47 mm Actual length = 5.47 (0.06) = 5.53 mm

1.3 Measurement of Length

IT Activity (Pair)
Objective
Additional practice of the micrometer screw gauge Instructions

1.In pairs, go to http://members.shaw.ca/ron.blond/Micrometer.APPLE URL T/ 2. Take turns to use the applet on the website to set a random spindleanvil gap width. Hide the reading and let your partner read the micrometer screw gauge.
3. Repeat step 2 until both of you have each read at least five readings correctly.

1.3 Measurement of Length Question

The diagram on the left shows a micrometer screw gauge when the jaws are closed. The diagram on the right shows the reading when an object is placed between the jaws. Determine the correct reading.

mm

1.3 Measurement of Length Question

The external diameter of a cylinder is measured using vernier calipers. Assuming there is no zero error, (a) what is the radius of the cylinder? (b) state another precaution you can take to minimise other errors.
mm

Chapter 1 Measurement

1.1 1.2

What is Physics? Physical Quantities and SI Units

1.3
1.4

Measurement of Length
Measurement of Time

1.4 Measurement of Time

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to: describe how to measure a short period of time with appropriate accuracy, using appropriate instruments.

1.4 Measurement of Time

How do We Tell Time?
We can tell time by observing events that repeat at regular intervals or periods.

1.4 Measurement of Time

How do We Tell Time?
The SI unit for measuring time is the second (s). A more precise way to measure a fixed interval of time is to use a pendulum.

Each complete to-and-fro motion is one oscillation.

The time for one complete oscillation is known as the period.

The period is dependent on the length of the pendulum.

1.4 Measurement of Time

What do We Use to Measure Time?
Pendulums, stopwatches and clocks are used to measure time intervals using periodic motion.
The accuracy of an electronic stopwatch is 0.01 s. Due to human reaction time, the time measured using a stopwatch usually has an error of about 0.3 s to 0.5 s. How can this error be minimised?

1.4 Measurement of Time

Calibrating a Simple Pendulum
How can a pendulum be used to tell time?
As the time taken to complete one swing is fixed, by determining the number of swings, a time interval can be determined. First, we need to calibrate a pendulum.

1.4 Measurement of Time

Calibrating a Simple Pendulum
Record the time taken by the pendulum to make 20 oscillations.
Repeat the above step and find the average time taken for 20 oscillations. Repeat for different lengths of the pendulum. Find the average time T taken for one oscillation.

1.4 Measurement of Time

Calibrating a Simple Pendulum
Record your data in a table.
Time for 20 oscillations Length/m tave 20

t1/s

t2/s

tave/s

T/s

T2/s2

Plot a graph of T2 against the length l of the pendulum.

1.4 Measurement of Time

Calibrating a Simple Pendulum
The length of the pendulum that corresponds to a period of 1 s can be read off the graph. By using a pendulum of this length, we can count the number of oscillations and from there, determine the time interval.

1s

Chapter 1 Measurement
Seven basic physical quantities
are

Time (SI unit: s)

can be measured using

Mass (SI unit: kg) Temperature (SI unit: K) Electric current (SI unit: A) Amount of substance (SI unit: mol) Luminous intensity (SI unit: cd) Instrument Tape measure Metre rule Vernier calipers Micrometer screw gauge Precision 1 mm 1 mm 0.1 mm 0.01 mm

Length (SI unit: m)

can be measured using

Pendulums Clocks Stopwatches

based on

Measuring range Several metres Several cm to 1 m 1 cm to 15 cm Less than 2.5 cm

Periodic motions called oscillations

Chapter 1 Measurement
The URLs are valid as at 15 October 2012.

Acknowledgements
(slides 166) Mars Climate Orbiter Courtesy NASA | JPLCaltech (slide 4) Andromeda galaxy Sgirimont | Dreamstime.com (slide 4) Earth Tonygers | Dreamstime.com (slide 5) atom model Sofiaworld | Dreamstime.com (slide 5) light bulb Edhardream | Dreamstime.com (slide 5) bike race Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited (slide 5) flame Stockagogo | Dreamstime.com (slide 5) waves Leighdiprosephotography | Dreamstime.com

Chapter 1 Measurement

Acknowledgements
(slide 6) Galileo Galilei Justus Sustermans | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain (slide 6) Ren Descartes Andr Hatala | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain (slide 6) Sir Isaac Newton Sir Godfrey Kneller | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain (slide 6) Albert Einstein Oren Jack Turner | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain (slide 26) human hair Jan Homann | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain (slide 26) wire Scott Ehardt | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain

Chapter 1 Measurement

Acknowledgements
(slide 26) chopsticks Rainfall | Dreamstime.com (slide 26) football field Skywalker01 | Dreamstime.com (slide 27) Mount Everest Aprescindere | Dreamstime.com (slide 27) Earth Tonygers | Dreamstime.com (slide 27) Andromeda galaxy Sgirimont | Dreamstime.com (slide 29) tape measure Denafan01 | Dreamstime.com (slide 29) metre rule Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited (slide 29) vernier calipers Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited

Chapter 1 Measurement

Acknowledgements
(slide 33) tape measure Denafan01 | Dreamstime.com (slide 34) measurement by vernier calipers Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited (slide 42) micrometer screw gauge Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited (slide 55) four seasons Icefields | Dreamstime.com (slide 55) moon phases Oriontrail | Dreamstime.com (slide 55) sunset Pestisbest | Dreamstime.com (slide 55) sundial Pelvidge | Dreamstime.com