Chemistry Revision

Ch 4.1 4.4

Atoms
Atoms are the basic building block of everything around us Atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons Protons and neutrons form the nucleus of an atom Electrons spin around in the space around the nucleus Protons are POSITIVELY CHARGED Neutrons have NO CHARGE Electrons are NEGATIVELY CHARGED Therefore, the nucleus of an atom is ALWAYS positively charged

Atoms
Electrons exist in shells around the nucleus These shells represent energy levels, this is because the electrons and protons are attracted to each other by charge Moving from the inner-most shell towards the outer-most, energy increases When electrons = protons, we call this the ground state These shells can only hold so many electrons The first shell can only hold 2 electrons, never any more. After the outermost shell is full, if we need to add more electrons, we add another shell. When looking at the first 20 elements, the maximum amount that can fit into any shell beyond the first is 8

Atoms
Atoms all have protons, and the number of these determines what element the atom is.

The number of protons is called the atomic number and each element has its own unique atomic number
We can notate atoms by writing the amount of electrons in each shell, this is called electron configuration To write the electron configuration we need the atomic number of the element, well use sodium as an example

Sodium has an atomic number of 11, we know that at ground state, number of protons = number of electrons We then fill the shells until we have electrons equal to the atomic number We know the first shell can only take a maximum of two electrons.

Once thats full, we start a new shell, and fill that. We know that for the first 20 elements, there can be no more than 8 electrons in a shell, and hence we put 8 electrons into the second shell. We now have one electron left, so we start a new shell and add it in there. This is written 2, 8, 1 there is 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second and 1 in the third.

Review
What charge do the following carry: -Protons -Neutrons -Electrons What charge is the nucleus of an atom?

What is the maximum amount of electrons that can fit into the first shell?
Write the electron configuration of sulfur

The Periodic Table

Every known element is listed on the periodic table of elements

These horizontal rows on the periodic table are known as periods

Vertical columns are known as groups, atoms in a same group share properties and number of outer-shell electrons

Going from left to right horizontally, atoms are arranged on the periodic table in order of atomic number

The Periodic Table

Periods are numbered 1 to 7 The period number is equal to the amount of shells each atom has for its electrons

The Periodic Table

The groups, numbered 1 18 are arranged in order of properties and outer shell electrons The last number in the group is = the amount of outer-shell electrons hence group 17 has 7 outer-shell electrons, group 1 has 1 etc. For the first 20 elements, if the outer shell number is between 3 and 8, we add 10 to find the group. Otherwise, the group = the number of outer-shell electrons

Review
Which way do groups run? Which way do periods run? Sodium has an electron configuration of 2, 8, 1 what group, and what period would you find it in? Aluminium has an electron configuration of 2, 8, 3. what group and what period would you find it?

Bonding and Ions

Bonding is where two atoms join together through various means Atoms often bond together, a group of two or more bonded atoms is called a molecule There are three kinds of bonding: -Metallic Bonding -Ionic Bonding -Covalent Bonding Metallic bonding is between metal atoms

Ionic bonding is between metal and a non-metal atoms Covalent bonding is between two non-metal atoms Have to understand ions before we understand bonding Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons

Ions that have gained electrons are negatively charged. This happens when non metals gain electrons Ions that lose electrons are positively charged. This happens when metals lose electrons

The charge is equal to how many electrons have been gained or lost, ie. Calcium loses two electrons, so its charge is 2+. Chlorine gains one electron so its charge is -1

Metallic Bonding
Occurs between two or more metal atoms.

All metal atoms in the molecule lose their outershell electrons to become positively charged ions
The electrons lost form a sea of electrons surrounding the metal These electrons move freely around the metal

Metallic bonding accounts for the properties of metals Theyre ductile because of the way atoms are able to be arranged, same with malleable The sea of electrons accounts for conducting heat and electricity

Ionic Bonding
Occurs between a metal and a non-metal. Metal atoms have few outer-shell electrons and want to get rid of them
When the metal and the nonmetal approach, the non-metal rips an electron from the metals outer shell. The metal then forms a positive ion, and the non-metal forms a negative ion The opposite charges then attract, and form a bond The charges holding the atoms together is known as electro-static interaction Each ion is surrounded by an ion of opposite charge, so ionic compounds form a lattice

Non-metal atoms have many outer-shell electrons and want to hold on to these as tight as they can, and want more

Covalent Bonding
Occurs between two nonmetals Covalent bonding describes sharing electrons Non-metals have a very strong hold on their outer shell electrons, its easier for them to gain than lose When two non-metals approach, they share electrons so that they have full outer-shells. For example, Chlorine has 7 outer shell electrons, meaning it needs one more to get a full outer-shell When one chlorine atom approaches another, they share an electron, this tricks both chlorine atoms into thinking they have a full outer shell This sharing causes the atoms to stick together, and thus they bond and form a molecule
For this reason, chlorine exists as Cl2 in real life Another example is water, water is H2O Oxygen has 6 electrons in its outer shell, hydrogen has one. Oxygen needs two electrons to get a full outer shell, hydrogen needs one The oxygen shares an electron with each hydrogen, and the hydrogen shares its electron with oxygen, every atom is tricked into thinking it has a full outer-shell, so they bond.

Covalent Bonding

Review
What kind of bonding occurs between two metals? What kind of bonding occurs between a metal and a non-metal What kind of bonding occurs between two nonmetals What kind of bonding has a sea of electrons surrounding its ions? What kind of bonding shares electrons? What kind of bonding includes electrostatic forces? Explain why Chlorine is found as Cl2

Family Groupings
Every element in a group on the periodic table has the same amount of outer-shell electrons Therefore group 1, has 1 outer-shell electron, group 2 has 2, group 17 has 7 and so on and so forth Because of this, they form the same charged ions, group one all form +1, group 2 all form +2, group 17 all form -1 etc In a group, elements all have similar properties, for example the alkali metals are all highly reactive, and the halogens all have poisonous vapours. Because all elements in a group tend to form the same charges, they react in predictable ways with other elements to make compounds that are similar Hence sodium (+1 charge) always forms a bond with halogens (-1 charge) in a 1:1 ration (ie. NaF, NaCl, NaBr). These are all white, powdery substances

Group 1 + 2
Group 1 is known as the alkali metals
These elements all form +1 ions, have 1 electron in their outer shell and are all highly reactive. They consist of lithium through francium

Group 2 is known as the alkali earths

They all have 2 electrons in their outer shells and form +2 ions. They consist of Beryllium through Radium

Group 14
Group 14 is known as the carbon group. These elements all have 4 electrons in their outer-shell Because of this, they are able to form many different bonds Carbon is able to bond covalently with itself, to form allotropes. Allotropes are different forms of the same element that differ in how the atoms are arranged in the molecule. Examples of this are graphite, charcoal and diamonds. These are all pure carbon Molecules that have carbon skeletons are called organic. These molecules are called organic molecules This is because carbon is in all living, and once-living things Other things, like petrol were never living but we still call them organic because of the carbon skeleton

Other elements in group 14 are silicon, germanium, tin and lead

Carbon is a non-metal, moving down this group, metallic properties increase, hence lead is ductile and lustrous, where as carbon is not

Group 17
Group 17 is known as the halogens. They all have 7 electrons in their outer shell They all form -1 ions They all form coloured, poisonous vapours Not found in their natural form, but in ionic salts (NaCl, NaBr) The halogens form covalent bonds with themselves and therefore exist in a diatomic state. This means that these elements are found with two atoms bonded together, ie. Cl2 and Br2

Group 18
Group 18 are known as the noble gases They all have full outer-shells and therefore do not form ions They have no charge Consist of helium through to Radon Colourless and Odourless

Emit colours when a current is passed through them Used in neon lighting

Transition Metals
Consist of groups 3 12 Are all metals hard with high melting points Include, but not limited to copper, zinc, gold, silver and iron Form colourful ionic compound All have very similar properties

Review
What charge do group 1 ions have? How many electrons are in the outer-shell of group 2 elements? What group is the halogens? Why are group 18 elements non-reactive What group all has poisonous vapours? What charge do halogens have? What charge to noble gases have?

Case Study: Sodium

List the group, period and electron configuration of sodium What ions does sodium form? How many electrons does sodium have in its outer-shell? What is sodiums atomic number? List the amount of protons, neutrons and electrons in sodium in its ground state

Suppose sodium and chlorine bonded, what kind of bond would occur between these atoms

Case Study: Carbon

List the group, period and electron configuration of carbon How many electrons does carbon have in its outer-shell? Carbon forms covalent bonds with itself. Given what you know about covalent bonds, state whether carbon is a metal or a non-metal What is an allotrope? Carbon Dioxide is a compound with one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Oxygen has 6 outer-shell electrons, carbon has 4. Describe how this bond is possible.

Case Study: Bonding

What kind of bond is characterised by a sea of electrons, what kind of elements would this occur between? List the three kinds of bonding, and what kind of elements this occurs between Describe how ionic bonding occurs