Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications

Fourth Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, Afshin J. Ghajar McGraw-Hill, 2011

Chapter 9 NATURAL CONVECTION

Mehmet Kanoglu
University of Gaziantep

Copyright 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Objectives
Understand the physical mechanism of natural convection Derive the governing equations of natural convection, and obtain the dimensionless Grashof number by nondimensionalizing them Evaluate the Nusselt number for natural convection associated with vertical, horizontal, and inclined plates as well as cylinders and spheres Examine natural convection from finned surfaces, and determine the optimum fin spacing Analyze natural convection inside enclosures such as double-pane windows Consider combined natural and forced convection, and assess the relative importance of each mode.
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PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF NATURAL CONVECTION

Many familiar heat transfer applications involve natural convection as the primary mechanism of heat transfer. Examples? Natural convection in gases is usually accompanied by radiation of comparable magnitude except for low-emissivity surfaces. The motion that results from the continual replacement of the heated air in the vicinity of the egg by the cooler air nearby is called a natural convection current, and the heat transfer that is enhanced as a result of this current is called natural convection heat transfer.

The cooling of a boiled egg in a cooler environment by natural convection.

The warming up of a cold drink in a warmer environment by natural convection.

Buoyancy force: The upward force exerted by a fluid on a body completely or partially immersed in it in a gravitational field. The magnitude of the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

The net vertical force acting on a body

Archimedes principle: A body immersed in a fluid will experience a weight loss in an amount equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. The chimney effect that induces the upward flow of hot combustion gases through a chimney is due to the buoyancy effect.
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Volume expansion coefficient: Variation of the density of a fluid with temperature at constant pressure.

ideal gas

The coefficient of volume expansion is a measure of the change in volume of a substance with temperature at constant pressure.

The larger the temperature difference between the fluid adjacent to a hot (or cold) surface and the fluid away from it, the larger the buoyancy force and the stronger the natural convection currents, and thus the higher the heat transfer rate.
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In natural convection, no blowers are used, and therefore the flow rate cannot be controlled externally. The flow rate in this case is established by the dynamic balance of buoyancy and friction. An interferometer produces a map of interference fringes, which can be interpreted as lines of constant temperature. The smooth and parallel lines in (a) indicate that the flow is laminar, whereas the eddies and irregularities in (b) indicate that the flow is turbulent. The lines are closest near the surface, indicating a higher temperature gradient. Isotherms in natural convection over a hot plate in air.
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EQUATION OF MOTION AND THE GRASHOF NUMBER

The thickness of the boundary layer increases in the flow direction. Unlike forced convection, the fluid velocity is zero at the outer edge of the velocity boundary layer as well as at the surface of the plate. At the surface, the fluid temperature is equal to the plate temperature, and gradually decreases to the temperature of the surrounding fluid at a distance sufficiently far from the surface. In the case of cold surfaces, the shape of the velocity and temperature profiles remains the same but their direction is reversed. Typical velocity and temperature profiles for natural convection flow over a hot vertical plate at temperature Ts inserted in a fluid at temperature T.

Derivation of the equation of motion that governs the natural convection flow in laminar boundary layer

Forces acting on a differential volume element in the natural convection boundary layer over a vertical flat plate.

This is the equation that governs the fluid motion in the boundary layer due to the effect of buoyancy. The momentum equation involves the temperature, and thus the momentum and energy equations must be solved simultaneously. 8

The complete set of conservation equations, continuity (Eq. 6 39), momentum (Eq. 913), and energy (Eq. 641) that govern natural convection flow over vertical isothermal plates are:

The above set of three partial differential equations can be reduced to a set of two ordinary nonlinear differential equations by the introduction of a similarity variable. But the resulting equations must still be solved along with their transforred boundary conditions numerically.

The Grashof Number

The governing equations of natural convection and the boundary conditions can be nondimensionalized by dividing all dependent and independent variables by suitable constant quantities:

Substituting them into the momentum equation and simplifying give

Grashof number: Represents the natural convection effects in momentum equation

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The Grashof number provides the main criterion in determining whether the fluid flow is laminar or turbulent in natural convection. For vertical plates, the critical Grashof number is observed to be about 109.

When a surface is subjected to external flow, the problem involves both natural and forced convection. The relative importance of each mode of heat transfer is determined by the value of the coefficient Gr/Re2:

Natural convection effects are negligible if Gr/Re2 << 1.

Free convection dominates and the forced convection effects are negligible if Gr/Re2 >> 1. Both effects are significant and must be considered if Gr/Re2 1 (mixed convection).
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The Grashof number Gr is a measure of the relative magnitudes of the buoyancy force and the opposing viscous force acting on the fluid.

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NATURAL CONVECTION OVER SURFACES

Natural convection heat transfer on a surface depends on the geometry of the surface as well as its orientation, the variation of temperature on the surface and the thermophysical properties of the fluid involved. With the exception of some simple cases, heat transfer relations in natural convection are based on experimental studies.

Rayleigh number
The constants C and n depend on the geometry of the surface and the flow regime, which is characterized by the range of the Rayleigh number. The value of n is usually 1/4 for laminar flow and 1/3 for turbulent flow. All fluid properties are to be evaluated at the film temperature Tf = (Ts + T)/2.

Natural convection heat transfer correlations are usually expressed in terms of the Rayleigh number raised to a constant n multiplied by another constant C, both of which are determined 14 experimentally.

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Vertical Plates (qs = constant)

The relations for isothermal plates in the table can also be used for plates subjected to uniform heat flux, provided that the plate midpoint temperature TL / 2 is used for Ts in the evaluation of the film temperature, Rayleigh number, and the Nusselt number.

Inclined Plates
In a hot plate in a cooler environment for the lower surface of a hot plate, the convection currents are weaker, and the rate of heat transfer is lower relative to the vertical plate case. On the upper surface of a hot plate, the thickness of the boundary layer and thus the resistance to heat transfer decreases, and the rate of heat transfer increases relative to the vertical orientation. Natural convection flows on the upper and lower surfaces of an inclined hot plate. In the case of a cold plate in a warmer environment, the opposite occurs.
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Horizontal Plates

For a hot surface in a cooler environment, the net force acts upward, forcing the heated fluid to rise.
If the hot surface is facing upward, the heated fluid rises freely, inducing strong natural convection currents and thus effective heat transfer. But if the hot surface is facing downward, the plate blocks the heated fluid that tends to rise, impeding heat transfer.

Natural convection flows on the upper and lower surfaces of a horizontal hot plate.

The opposite is true for a cold plate in a warmer environment since the net force (weight minus buoyancy force) in this case acts downward, and the cooled fluid near the plate tends to descend.
Characteristic length

Lc = a/4 for a horizontal square surface of length a

Lc = D/4 for a horizontal circular surface of diameter D

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Horizontal Cylinders and Spheres

The boundary layer over a hot horizontal cylinder starts to develop at the bottom, increasing in thickness along the circumference, and forming a rising plume at the top. Therefore, the local Nusselt number is highest at the bottom, and lowest at the top of the cylinder when the boundary layer flow remains laminar. Natural convection flow over a horizontal hot cylinder. The opposite is true in the case of a cold horizontal cylinder in a warmer medium, and the boundary layer in this case starts to develop at the top of the cylinder and ending with a descending plume at the bottom.

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NATURAL CONVECTION FROM FINNED SURFACES AND PCBs

The plates could be the fins of a finned heat sink, or the PCBs of an electronic device. The plates can be approximated as being isothermal (Ts = constant) in the first case, and isoflux (qs = constant) in the second case. Boundary layers start to develop at the lower ends of opposing surfaces, and eventually merge at the midplane if the plates are vertical and sufficiently long. In this case, we will have fully developed channel flow after the merger of the boundary layers, and the natural convection flow is analyzed as channel flow. But when the plates are short or the spacing is large, the boundary layers of opposing surfaces never reach each other, and the natural convection flow on a surface is not affected by the presence of the opposing surface. In that case, the problem should be analyzed as natural convection from two independent plates in a quiescent medium. 20

Natural convection flow through a channel between two isothermal vertical plates.

Natural Convection Cooling of Finned Surfaces (Ts = constant)

Finned surfaces of various shapes, called heat sinks, are frequently used in the cooling of electronic devices. Energy dissipated by these devices is transferred to the heat sinks by conduction and from the heat sinks to the ambient air by natural or forced convection, depending on the power dissipation requirements. Natural convection is the preferred mode of heat transfer since it involves no moving parts, like the electronic components themselves. Characteristic lengths S fin spacing L fin height
for vertical isothermal parallel plates
Widely spaced: Smaller surface area but higher heat transfer coefficient Closely packed: Higher surface area but smaller heat transfer coefficient There must be an optimum spacing that maximizes the natural convection heat transfer from the heat sink.

Heat sinks with (a) widely spaced and (b) closely packed fins.

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When the fins are essentially isothermal and the fin thickness t is small relative to the fin spacing S, the optimum fin spacing for a vertical heat sink is

All fluid properties are to be evaluated at the average temperature Tavg = (Ts + T)/2.

Various dimensions of a finned surface oriented vertically.

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Natural Convection Cooling of Vertical PCBs (qs = constant)

Arrays of printed circuit boards used in electronic systems can often be modeled as parallel plates subjected to uniform heat flux. The plate temperature in this case increases with height, reaching a maximum at the upper edge of the board.

number of plates The critical surface TL that occurs at the upper edge of the plates is determined from

All fluid properties are to be evaluated at the average temperature Tavg = (Ts + T)/2.

Arrays of vertical printed circuit boards (PCBs) cooled by natural convection.

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Mass Flow Rate through the Space between Plates

The magnitude of the natural convection heat transfer is directly related to the mass flow rate of the fluid, which is established by the dynamic balance of two opposing effects: buoyancy and friction. The fins of a heat sink introduce both effects: inducing extra buoyancy as a result of the elevated temperature of the fin surfaces and slowing down the fluid by acting as an added obstacle on the flow path. As a result, increasing the number of fins on a heat sink can either enhance or reduce natural convection, depending on which effect is dominant. The buoyancy-driven fluid flow rate is established at the point where these two effects balance each other. The friction force increases as more and more solid surfaces are introduced, seriously disrupting fluid flow and heat transfer. Heat sinks with closely spaced fins are not suitable for natural convection cooling. When the heat sink involves widely spaced fins, the shroud does not introduce a significant increase in resistance to flow, and the buoyancy effects dominate. As a result, heat transfer by natural convection may improve, and at a fixed power level the heat sink may run at a lower temperature.
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NATURAL CONVECTION INSIDE ENCLOSURES

Enclosures are frequently encountered in practice, and heat transfer through them is of practical interest. In a vertical enclosure, the fluid adjacent to the hotter surface rises and the fluid adjacent to the cooler one falls, setting off a rotationary motion within the enclosure that enhances heat transfer through the enclosure.

Lc charecteristic length: the distance between the hot and cold surfaces T1 and T2: the temperatures of the hot and cold surfaces Ra > 1708, natural convection currents Ra > 3105, turbulent fluid motion Fluid properties at
Nu = 1

Convective currents in a vertical rectangular enclosure.

Convective currents in a horizontal enclosure with (a) hot plate at the top and (b) hot plate at the bottom.

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Effective Thermal Conductivity

effective thermal conductivity The fluid in an enclosure behaves like a fluid whose thermal conductivity is kNu as a result of convection currents. Nu = 1, the effective thermal conductivity of the enclosure is equal to the conductivity of the fluid. This case corresponds to pure conduction.
Numerous correlations for the Nusselt number exist. Simple power-law type relations in the form of Nu = CRan, where C and n are constants, are sufficiently accurate, but they are usually applicable to a narrow range of Prandtl and Rayleigh numbers and aspect ratios.

A Nusselt number of 3 for an enclosure indicates that heat transfer through the enclosure by natural convection is three times that by pure conduction.

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Horizontal Rectangular Enclosures

For horizontal enclosures that contain air, These relations can also be used for other gases with 0.5 < Pr < 2.
For water, silicone oil, and mercury [ ]+ only positive values to be used Based on experiments with air. It may be used for liquids with moderate Prandtl numbers for RaL < 105.

When the hotter plate is at the top, Nu = 1.

A horizontal rectangular enclosure with isothermal surfaces.

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Inclined Rectangular Enclosures

An inclined rectangular enclosure 28 with isothermal surfaces.

Vertical Rectangular Enclosures

A vertical rectangular enclosure with isothermal surfaces.

Again, all fluid properties are to be evaluated at the average temperature (T1+T2)/2.
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Concentric Cylinders
The rate of heat transfer through the annular space between the cylinders by natural convection per unit length

Characteristic length

the geometric factor for concentric cylinders

For FcylRaL < 100, natural convection currents are negligible and thus keff = k. Note that keff cannot be less than k, and thus we should set keff = k if keff/k < 1.

Two concentric horizontal isothermal cylinders.

The fluid properties are evaluated at the average temperature of (Ti + To)/2.
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Concentric Spheres
Characteristic length

Two concentric isothermal spheres.

If keff /k < 1, we should set keff = k.

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Combined Natural Convection and Radiation

Gases are nearly transparent to radiation, and thus heat transfer through a gas layer is by simultaneous convection (or conduction) and radiation. Radiation is usually disregarded in forced convection problems, but it must be considered in natural convection problems that involve a gas. This is especially the case for surfaces with high emissivities.

Radiation heat transfer from a surface at temperature Ts surrounded by surfaces at a temperature Tsurr is

= 5.67 108 W/m2K4

StefanBoltzmann constant Radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates is

When T < Ts and Tsurr > Ts, convection and radiation heat transfers are in opposite directions and subtracted from each other.
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Summary
Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection Equation of Motion and the Grashof Number Natural Convection Over Surfaces
Vertical Plates (Ts = constant), (qs = constant) Vertical Cylinders Inclined Plates Horizontal Plates Horizontal Cylinders and Spheres

Natural Convection from Finned Surfaces and PCBs

Natural Convection Cooling of Finned Surfaces (Ts = constant) Natural Convection Cooling of Vertical PCBs (qs = constant) Mass Flow Rate through the Space between Plates

Natural Convection Inside Enclosures

Effective Thermal Conductivity Horizontal Rectangular Enclosures Inclined Rectangular Enclosures Vertical Rectangular Enclosures Concentric Cylinders and Spheres Combined Natural Convection and Radiation

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