Bio 2 Plant and Animal Biology

Evolution
Evolution as the explanation for lifes unity and diversity

Darwinian Revolution

Two main Points Descent with Modification Natural Selection

Biological Species

A group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring

Two Patterns of Evolutionary Change

Anagenesis Cladogenesis

Allopatric Speciation

Evidence of Allopatric Speciation

Allopatric Speciation

Allopatric Speciation

1. Small Population 2. Isolation 3. Different Environmental Conditions

Sympatric Speciation

Autopolyploidy Examples: Maidenhair Fern Bufo pewzowi

2n=6

Cell division error Tetraploid Cell 4n=12

2n

2n

Gametes produced by Tetraploid

New Species (4n)

Sympatric Speciation

Allopolyploidy Examples: Triticum aestivum Gray Treefrog

Hybrid Zone

Hybrid Zone

Hybrid Zone

Over time Reinforcement Strengthening of reproductive barriers Fusion Weakening of reproductive barriers Stability Continued production of hybrid individuals

Adaptive Radiation
The emergence of numerous species from a common ancestor introduced into an environment, presenting a diversity of new opportunities and problems

Adaptive Radiation (Silversword Alliance - Tarweed)

Macroevolution: Evolutionary Change on a Grand Scale

Punctuated Equilibrium

Time

Gradualism

Gradualism
Also called Neodarwinism Small changes over time Supporter: Ernst Mayr

Gradualism

Populational - new traits become established in a population by increasing their frequency from a small fraction of the population to the majority

Gradualism

Phenotypic New traits, even those that are strikingly different from ancestral ones are produced in small increments

Gradualism

Phyletic - On a geological time scale, there are intermediate forms connecting the phenotypes of ancestors and descendents

Punctuated Equilibrium

Supporters: Niles Eldredge & Stephen J. Gould Speciation occurs in episodic events large periods of time with little change and short periods of time with large changes

Macroevolution through many Speciation Events

Macroevolution through many Speciation Events

Evolutionary Novelties Evolution of Genes that control development Changes in Spatial Pattern Changes in Rate and Timing

Origin of Evolutionary Novelty

Most novelties are modified versions of older structures Exaptation preadaptation

Evolution of Genes that Control Development

Julian Huxley - Modern Synthesis Gradual evolution can be explained by small genetic changes that produce variation which is acted upon by natural selection

Evolution of Genes that Control Development

Julian Huxley - Modern Synthesis The evolution at higher taxonomic levels and of greater magnitude can be explained by long periods of time

Evolution of Genes that control Development

Forms change Natural Selection is the force driving change How did it occur?

Evolution of Genes that control Development

Evo-devo How does it occur?

Evolution of Genes that control Development

Evo-devo - Tool-kit of master genes

Changes in Spatial Pattern

Homeotic Genes (Hox Genes) position information

Changes in Spatial Pattern

Changes in Spatial Pattern

Homeobox

Changes in Spatial Pattern

Changes in expression patterns of four Hox genes over time

Changes in Rate and Timing

Allometric Growth the variation in the relative rates of growth of various parts of the body

Changes in rate and timing

Heterochrony - evolutionary change in the timing or rate of development

Changes in rate and timing

Paedeomorphosis - retention of juvenile features in an adult

Changes in rate and timing

Paedeogenesis - sexual maturity in a larval form

Evolutionary Trends

Evolutionary trends are not goal oriented

The Tree of Life

Biological Diversity

The Fossil Record

The Fossil Record

The Fossil Record

Sedimentary Rocks

Hard Parts

The Fossil Record

Minerals replacing organic material

Organic Material

The Fossil Record

Casts

Trace Fossils

The Fossil Record

Entire Organisms

Dating Fossils
Absolute Dating (half-life)

Relative Dating
Precambrian (Archaean)

Origin of Earth (4.6 bya) Oldest known rocks on Earths surface (3.8 bya)

History of the Earth

Precambrian (Archaean)

Oldest Prokaryotes (3.5 bya)

History of the Earth

Precambrian (Archaean)

Oxygen (2.7 bya)

Precambrian (Proterozoic)

Oldest Eukaryotes (2.1 bya) Diversification of Multicellular Eukaryotes (542-635 mya)

Paleozoic Era - Cambrian Period (488 542 mya)

Cambrian Explosion - Origin of most modern animal phyla

Paleozoic Era Ordovician Period (488 444 mya)

Origin of land plants First arthropods on land First jawless fish First Fungi

Paleozoic Era Silurian Period (444 416)

First jawed fish First vascular plants Diversity of early vascular plants

Paleozoic Era Devonian Period (416 359 mya)

Age of Fishes First Amphibians First Insects

Paleozoic Era Carboniferous Period (359 299 mya)

Vascular Forests First Seed Plants Amphibians Abundant First Reptiles

Paleozoic Era Permian Period (299 251 mya)

Radiation of Reptiles Origin of mammallike Reptiles Most modern orders of insects Largest Extinction

Mesozoic Era Triassic Period (251 199.6 mya)

Gymnosperms dominant Radiation of Dinosaurs First Mammals and Birds

Mesozoic Era Jurassic Period (199.6 145.5 mya)

Dinosaurs Dominate Gymnosperms Dominate

Mesozoic Era Cretaceous Period (145.5 65.5 mya)

Flowering Plants Appear Dinosaurs Disappear at End of Period

Cenozoic Era (Age of Mammals)

Quaternary Period (2.6 mya Present) Neogene Period (23 2.6 mya) Paleogene Period (65.5 - 23 mya)

Paleogene Period Paleocene Epoch

Adaptive Radiation of Mammals, Birds, and Insects

Paleogene Period - Eocene Epoch

Angiosperm Dominance Most Modern Mammal Orders

Paleogene Period Oligocene Epoch

First Primates

Neogene Period - Miocene Epoch

Continued Radiation of Mammals and Flowering Plants Earliest direct human ancestors

Neogene Period - Pliocene Epoch

Bipedal human ancestors appear

Quaternary Period Pleistocene Epoch

Ice Ages Homo genus appears

Quaternary Period Recent (Holocene) Epoch

Historic Time

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics

Earths History

Pangaea (245 mya) Pangaea began to break up (180 mya) Laurasia Gondwana

Mass Extinctions

Ordovician (440) Devonian (365) Permian (245) Triassic (210) Cretaceous (65)

K-T Boundary
Chicxulub Crater Caribbean Sea near the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico

Tree of Life

Systematics
The study of biological diversity in an evolutionary context

Systematic Tools

Molecular Comparisons usually (rRNA or mtDNA) DNA-DNA Hybridization Restriction maps DNA Sequence analysis

Phylogenetic Groupings

Monophyletic ancestor and all its descendants

Phylogenetic Groupings

Paraphyletic ancestor with some but not all its descendants

Phylogenetic Groupings

Polyphyletic two different ancestors

Phylogenetic Groupings

Similarities

Homology likeness attributed to shared ancestry

Similarities

Analogy likeness due to similar ecological roles and natural selection due to convergent evolution

Molecular Homoplasy

Analogous species that have similar DNA sequences that evolved independently in two species

Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny (Ernst Haeckel)

Ontogeny individual development Recapitulates repeats Phylogeny evolutionary descent

The Science of Systematics

Phenetics based on a number of similarities and differences does not take into account homology or analogy all groupings

Classical Evolutionary Systematics

George Gaylord Simpson

The Science of Phylogenetic Systematics

Classical Evolutionary Systematics most commonly used up until recently based on shared homologous structures takes into account the amount of adaptive evolutionary change (novelties) Monophyletic and paraphyletic groupings

The Science of Systematics

Cladistics (Phylogenetic Systematics) based on shared homologous structures only monophyletic groupings

Will Hennig

The Science of Phylogenetic Systematics

Cladistic Assumptions 1. Monophyletic 2. Descent follows a bifurcating pattern 3. Changes in characteristics occur in lineages over time

Cladistics

Synapomorphies: Shared ancestral characters Plesiomorphies: Shared Primitive characters Apomorphies: Shared derived characters

Phylograms

Ultrametric Trees

Cladistics

Cladistics

Cladistics

Molecular Clock