Biomaterials For Dental Implants
Biomaterials For Dental Implants
BC Muddugangadhar et al. Biomaterials for Dental Implants: An Overview. International Journal of Oral Implantology and Clinical Research, January-April 2011;2(1):13-24
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGIES
HISTORY CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMATERIALS BIOCOMPATIBILITY
CORROSION RESISTANCE CYTOTOXICITY OF CORROSION PRODUCTS METAL CONTAMINATION
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
TERMINOLOGIES
Biocompatibility (Dorland's illustrated medical dictionary) Being harmonious with life and not having toxic or injurious effects on biofunction.
Biomaterial Any substance other than drug that can be used for any period as a part of a system that treats, augments or replaces any tissue, organ or function of the body.
INTRODUCTION
Biomaterials The
are those materials that are compatible with the living tissues.
physical properties of the materials, their potential to corrode in the tissue environment, their surface configuration, tissue induction and their potential for eliciting inflammation or rejection response are all important factors under this area.
INTRODUCTION
The
to develop implant materials induce predictable, control-guided and rapid healing of the interfacial tissues both hard and soft
Biotolerant Material that is not necessarily rejected but are surrounded by fibrous layer in the form of a capsule.
Bio inert Material that allows close apposition of bone on their surface, leading to contact osteogenesis. Bioactive - Materials that allow formation of new bone onto their surface, but ion exchange with host tissue leads to formation of a chemical bond along the interface (bonding osteogenesis).
Osteoconductive the materials that forms scaffolding that allows the formation of bone. Osteoinducitive materials that have capacity to induce bone formation de novo. E.g.- recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2. (rhBMP-2)
Late 1970s and Early 1980s Tatum - custom blade implants of Titanium alloy
1970 and 1980 Weiss and Judy Titanium Mushroom shaped projection (IMPLANT)
Biological biocompatibility Metals Biotolerant Gold Cobalt-chromium alloys Stainless steel Zirconium Niobium Tantalum Commercially pure titanium Titanium alloy (Ti6Al-4V)
Bioinert
Zirconium oxide
Hydroxyapatite Tricalcium phosphate Calcium pyrophosphate Fluorapatite Carbon:vitreous, pyrolytic Bioglass
Bioactive
Corrosion resistance
Cytotoxicity of corrosion products Metal contamination
Corrosion - It is defined as loss of metallic ions from the surface of the metal to the surrounding environment. Types of corrosion :
General Galvanic Pitting Fretting Crevice Stress
corrosion cracking
General corrosion - When metal is immersed in electrolytic solution the positively charged ions from the metal are transferred to electrolyte and then metal transports the negatively charged electrons.
Pitting corrosion - Along with general corrosion on the surface there is enhanced corrosion in the pit.
Crevice corrosion -The local environment around the screw to bone plate interface or implant device. Where in overlay or composite type surface exists on a metallic substrate. They provide opportunities for crevice corrosion.
Galvanic corrosion It occurs when two dissimilar metallic materials are in contact in a electrolyte leading to flow of current.
Fretting corrosion It occurs when there is a micro-motion and rubbing contact within the corrosive environment.
Stress corrosion cracking The combination of high mechanical stresses and simultaneous exposure to a corrosive environment results in the failure of metallic materials by cracking where neither condition alone would cause the failure.
PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION Passivation Increasing the noble metal content Polishing the surface Avoid dissimilar metal contact
CYTOTOXICITY OF CORROSION PRODUCTS The material should undergo only minimal amount of biochemical changes during service.
The material should have minimal reaction with the surrounding bone and the soft tissue. Ideally the corrosion products should not produce any toxicity to the local and systemic environment.
METAL CONTAMINATION By contacting dissimilar metals or alloys. The debris from the dissimilar metals can be embedded in the implant surface and corrode to form compounds that cause foreign body reactions in the surrounding tissue.
Two different metals in the saline solutions or body fluids may result in a localized difference of electrochemical potential and cause galvanic corrosion. So the instruments that contact titanium implant during insertion procedures either be solid titanium, titanium tipped or treated to prevent metallic transfer. During storage, sterilization and surgical set up no other type of metal should contact the implant surface.
The microscopic distribution is controlled by the Basic properties of biomaterials as -Surface chemistry, Microtopography, Modulus of elasticity and Surface attachment to the adjacent tissue.
The dental implant are less affected by alternating stresses than implants of cardiovascular and locomotive systems because of lower number of loading cycles and considerable smaller size of implants. But in cases with Para functional habits the longevity is detrimental.
The forces exerted on implant consists of compressive tensile and shear. As for the most of the materials compressive force is greater than others. Basic problem lies due to the difference in mechanical strength and deformability of the material and the recipient bone.
The metals can be modified to achieve the required properties by work hardening or alloying.
The ability of the implant to bear the stress decreases as the number of loading cycles increases. Higher the applied load higher the mechanical stress greater the possibility of exceeding the fatigue limit of the material. Many materials are biocompatible but cannot be used as an implant because of their low ultimate strength.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY It represents elastic response of an implant to the mechanical stress. The forces applied on the stresses within the bone. implant leads to
When the applied forces are equal to stresses it acquires the state of static equilibrium.
increase,
it
leads
to
The physiologic importance of modulus of elasticity of biomaterial is related to the modulus of elasticity of the bone. The degree of relative movement at the interface determines the health or pathologic state of interface.
The modulus of elasticity of titanium is very near to bone compared to any other material used. It is almost 6 times more stiff than dense cortical bone. The carbon implants has compatible stiffness with bone but fail to have adequate strength to withstand physiologic load leading to microcracks and finally the failure of implant.
On the other hand the aluminum oxide ceramic implant has high ultimate strength but the stiffness is 33 times greater than the stiffness of the bone which results in apparent stress shielding of interfacial bone.
The modulus of elasticity in subperiosteal implants not as important a consideration. The envelopment of the implant in the outer layer of periosteum during healing provides a stable biomechanical situation.
For bilateral/total subperiosteal implant may cause excessive relative movement due to its rigidity. So cutting these at the midline or providing individual abutment can increase flexibility. For unilateral subperiosteal implant the negative effect of relative movement of metal is minimal.
Most of the materials used for implants are constructed from metals and their alloys. These includes Titanium, Tantalum, Aluminum, Vanadium, Cobalt, Chromium, Nickel and Molybdenum. These are selected on the basis of their over all strength. Less frequently used are precious metals as Gold and Platinum.
The evolution of titanium (Ti) applications to medical and dental implants has dramatically increased in the past few years because of titaniums excellent biocompatibility corrosion resistance and desirable physical and mechanical properties.
Titanium has become a material of great interest in prosthodontics in recent years. A growing trend involves the use of titanium as an economical and biocompatible replacement for existing alloys.
The physical and mechanical properties of pure Ti and Ti alloys can be greatly varied with the addition of small traces of other elements such as oxygen, iron, and nitrogen. Commercially pure titanium, is available in four different grades
ASTM I to 1V - based on the incorporation of small amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, iron, and carbon during purification procedure. ASTM committee on materials for surgical implants recognizes four grades of commercially pure titanium and two titanium alloys.
The two alloys are Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-6A1-4V extra low interstitial (ELI).
Commercially pure titanium is also referred to as unalloyed titanium. All six of these materials are commercially available as dental implants.
Ti-6A1-4V Several alloys of titanium are used in dentistry. Of these alloys, Ti 6Al-4V is the most widely used. At room temperature, Ti-6A1-4V is a two-phase + alloy.
At approximately 975C, an allotropic phase transformation takes place, transforming the microstructure to a single phase BCC -alloy.
Thermal treatments dictate the relative amounts of the and phases and the phase morphologies and yield a variety of microstructures and a range of mechanical properties.
Mechanical Properties
The modulus of elasticity of CpTi - 104 Mpa
Compared to Bone - modulus of elasticity of CpTi is 5 times and Ti alloy is 5-6 times. Compared to Co-Cr-Mo these are twice strong and the elastic modulus Has poor shear strength and wear resistance so unsuitable for holding bone screws.
OXIDE COATINGS
The Biocompatibility of the Ti and Ti alloy is attributed to the ability of formation of passive tenacious surface oxide. Minimum of 85 to 95% of pure titanium is required to maintain passivity. The pure titanium theoretically may form several oxides as TiO, Ti O2,Ti2O3. The oxides form spontaneously on exposure to Ti to air.
Within a millisecond 10 thick oxide layer will be formed. In a minute the layer will become 100 thick.
The repair of the oxide layer is instantaneous if any damage occurs during insertion of Implant.
Rate of dissolution is extremely low compared to any implant metals.
Commonly used for fabrication of custom design (e.g. : subperiosteal frames) by casting.
Composition:
63% cobalt 30% Chromium for passivation 5 % Molybdenum Strength Traces of carbon , magnesium, and nickel
Precautions:
Proper fabrication techniques should be used Poor ductility so bending can be avoided so cannot be used form blade for implants.
Precautions
High cost and High density. Due to its nobility and availability gold is continued to be used as surgical Implant materials.
CERAMICS These are non organic, non metallic, non polymeric materials manufactured by compacting and sintering at elevated temperatures.
Used for Endosteal root form, plate form implants Have clear white cream or light grey color so used for anterior root form Minimal biodegradation High modulus of elasticity Low fracture resistance Exhibit direct interface with bone
THE TBINGEN IMPLANT OF ALUMINUM OXIDE HAS SPECIFIC MICRO-IRREGULARITIES ON THE SURFACE, CLAIMED TO ALLOW BONE INGROWTH.
DISADVANTAGES Exposure to steam sterilization results in measurable decrease in strength of some ceramics. So dry heat sterilization is recommended. Scratches or notches may induce fracture initiating sites. Although initial testing showed adequate mechanical strengths, long term clinical results clearly demonstrate a functional design and material related limitations.
BIOACTIVE AND BIODEGRADABLE CERAMICS Calcium Phosphate Ceramics The compositions was relatively similar to bone Ca5(PO4)3OH Color similar to bone. Shows good bonding with bone so it can be used when structural support is required under high magnitude loading.
Mixtures with collagen, active organic compounds as bone morphogenetic proteins and with drugs have increased the range of its applications. It is used as a coating over the metallic implants. Modulus of elasticity is very near to bone.
DISADVANTAGES Low mechanical tensile and shear strengths under fatigue loading. Low attachment strength on some substrates. Variable solubility depending on the product and their clinical applications.
HYDROXYAPATITE
When the calcium and phosphorus in the ratio of 1.5 to 1.7 are sintered in water containing atmosphere at 1200C to 1300C a crystallographic end product will be obtained that is Hydroxyapatite.
Hydroxyapatite is non porous with angular or spherical shape particles that are examples of crystalline high pure Hydroxyapatite. Their compressive strength is 500 Mpa and tensile strength is 50-70 Mpa.
Dense polycrystalline ceramics with small crystallites have higher mechanical strength. These ceramics are widely used as coatings on metallic implant substrates.
Calcium phosphate ceramics have become a routine use by plasma spray technique. This technique increases the surface area which in turn increases the osseointegration.
Density of the material increases as the percentage of crystallinity increases. As the density / crystallinity increases the solubility decreases.
The solubility also depends on the surface area.
The amorphous products are more soluble because they have less organized atomic structure.
These are susceptible to enzyme or cell mediated breakdown in the same way that of living bone. These are non conductors of heat and electricity.
TISSUE RESPONSE
The Ceramic implant surface responds to the local pH changes by releasing Na, Ca, P and Si ions in exchange for H2 ions. Si reacts with O2 to form Silica gel. As the concentration of phosphorus and calcium increases at the surface they combine to form calcium phosphate rich layer and the collagen fibers become incorporated into it.
This way the functional integration with bone occurs with the help of natural bone cementing substance so the bond formed is strong.
ADVANTAGES
Tissue attachment.
Thermal and electrical insulation. Color control. Provides opportunities for attachment of active biomolecules.
LIMITATIONS
Poor Mechanical strength. Time dependent changes in the physical characteristics. Biodegradation could adversely affect Stability. Minimal resistance to scratching or scraping.
PROPERTIES
Polymers have low strengths and elastic moduli and higher elongation to fracture compared with other class of biomaterials. Relatively resistant to biodegradation compared to bone.
Most uses have been for internal force distribution connectors intended to better simulate biomechanical conditions for normal tooth functions.
Some are porous where as others are constituted as solid structural forms.
DISADVANTAGES Sensitive to sterilization and handling techniques. Display Electrostatic surface properties. Tend to gather dust or other particulate if exposed to semi clean oral environments. Cleaning the contaminated porous polymers is not possible without a laboratory environment.
SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY
Surface topography relates to the degree of roughness of the surface and the orientation of surface irregularities.
TYPES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS 1) Macrosurface Roughness. 2)Microsurface roughness. Screw
ABRADED
COATING
TPS HA
TiO2
1) Increased surface areas of the implant adjacent to bone. 2) Improved cell attachment to the bone. 3) Increased bone present at implant surface.
THREADS
Threads are used to maximize initial contact, initial stability, increase implant surface area and also favor the dissipation of interfacial stress.
3) Thread Pitch
4) Thread face angle 5) Thread Helix angle
Literature reports, based on the average surface roughness surfaces with 1 m are considered smooth, and those with > 1 m are described as rough.
BLASTING
Blasting with particles of various diameters is one of the frequently used method of surface alteration. In this approach, the implant surface is bombarded with particles of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) or titanium oxide (TiO2), and by abrasion, a rough surface is produced with irregular pits and depressions.
Roughness depends on particle size, time of blasting, pressure, and distance from the source of particles to the implant surface.
Blasting a smooth Ti surface with Al2 O3 particles of 25 m, 75 m, or 250 m produces surfaces with SAND BLASTED AND ACID ETCHED roughness values of 1.16 to IMPLANT 1.20, 1.43, and 1.94 to 2.20, respectively.
SEM x 70
SEM x 300
SEM x 300
CHEMICAL ETCHING
Chemical etching is another process by which surface roughness can be increased.
The metallic implant is immersed into an acidic solution, which erodes its surface, creating pits of specific dimensions and shape.
Concentration of the acidic solution, time, and temperature are factors determining the result of chemical attack and microstructure of the surface.
Sandblasted specimen
Recently, a new surface was introduced that was sandblasted with large grit and acid-etched (SLA, Straumann). This surface is produced by a large grit (250 to 500 m) blasting process, followed by etching with hydrochloric-sulfuric acid. The average ra for the acid-etched surface is 1.3 m, and the sandblasted and acid-etched surface, ra=2.0 m.
NaOH,
Aqueous
Nitric
acid,
angle
by
100
better
cell
SEM 1000X
POROUS
Porous sintered surfaces are produced when spherical powders of metallic or ceramic material becomes a coherent mass with the metallic core of the implant body. Lack of sharp edges is what distinguishes these from rough surfaces. Porous surfaces are characterized by pore size, pore shape, pore volume, and pore depth, which are affected by the size of spherical particles and the temperature and pressure conditions of the sintering chamber.
FIBROBLASTS CULTURED FOR 24 HOURS ON THE SURFACE OF A POROUS TITANIUM ALLOY IMPLANT.
HYDROXYAPATITE COATINGS
Can be Indicated
- Type IV bone . - Fresh extraction sites. - Newly grafted sites.
SEM 100X
ADVANTAGES OF HA-COATINGS
1. HA coating can lower the corrosion rate of the same substrate alloys.
2. HA coatings has been credited with enabling to obtain improved bone to implant attachment compared with machined surface. 3. The bone adjacent to the implant has been reported to be better organized than with other implant materials and with a higher degree of mineralization.
metallic
implants
to
produce
an
ionic
ceramic surface, which is thermodynamically stable and hydrophilic, thereby producing a high strength attachment to bone and surrounding tissues.
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is used as the gold standard for ceramic implants because of its inertness with no evidence of ion release or immune reaction in vivo.
Zirconia (ZrO2) has also demonstrated a high degree of inertness.
THE TBINGEN IMPLANT OF ALUMINUM OXIDE HAS SPECIFIC MICRO-IRREGULARITIES ON THE SURFACE, CLAIMED TO ALLOW BONE INGROWTH.
Surface modification methods include controlled chemical reactions with nitrogen or other elements or surface ion implantation procedures.
The
reaction of nitrogen with titanium alloys at elevated temperatures results in titanium nitride compounds being formed along the surface. the titanium nitrides are similar to the oxides (TiO2), and no adverse electrochemical behavior has been noted if the nitride is lost regionally. titanium substrate reoxidizes when the surface layer of nitride is removed.
Electrochemically,
The
DOPED SURFACES
Doped surfaces that contain various types of bone growth factors or other bone-stimulating agents that may prove advantageous in compromised bone beds. However, at present clinical documentation of the efficacy of such surfaces is lacking.
Physical characteristic:
Physical characteristic refers to the factors such as surface energy and charge. Hypothesis : A surface with high energy high affinity for adsorption show stronger osseointegration. Baier RE (1986) Glow discharge (plasma cleaning) results in high surface energy as well as the implant sterilization, being conductive to tissue integration.
Charge affects the hydrophilic and hydrophobic characteristic of the surface. A hydrophilic / easily wettable implant surface : Increases a initial phase of wound healing. Increase surface energy would disappear immediately after implant placement.
dentistry
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T. Albrektssson.
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Zarb & Symington (1983).Osseointegrated dental implants: preliminary report on a replication study. Journal of prosthetic dentistry 50,271-
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