Mathematical Preliminaries

1
 Mathematical Preliminaries

• Sets
• Functions
• Relations
• Graphs
• Proof Techniques

2
 SETS
A set is a collection of elements
A  {1, 2, 3}
B  {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

We write
1 A
ship  B
3
 Set Representations

C = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k }

C = { a, b, …, k } finite set

S = { 2, 4, 6, … } infinite set

S = { j : j > 0, and j = 2k for some k>0 }

S = { j : j is nonnegative and even }

4
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

U
6 A
2 3 8
1
7 4 5
9
10

Universal Set: all possible elements

U = { 1 , … , 10 }
5
 Set Operations
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}
A B
• Union
2 4
1
A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } 3 5

• Intersection
U
A B = { 2, 3 } 2
3
• Difference
A-B={1}
1
B - A = { 4, 5 }
Venn diagrams
6
• Complement
Universal set = {1, …, 7}
A = { 1, 2, 3 } A = { 4, 5, 6, 7}

4
A
A 3 6
1
2
5 7

A=A
7
{ even integers } = { odd integers }

Integers

1 odd
even
6 5
2
0
4
3 7

8
DeMorgan’s Laws

AUB=A B
U

A B=AUB
U

9
 Empty, Null Set:
={}

SU =S
U
S = = Universal Set

S- =S

-S=

10
 Subset
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A B

U
Proper Subset: A B

U
B
A

11
 Disjoint Sets
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 5, 6}

A B=
U

A B

12
 Set Cardinality
• For finite sets
A = { 2, 5, 7 }

|A| = 3

(set size)

13
 Powersets
A powerset is a set of sets

S = { a, b, c }

Powerset of S = the set of all the subsets of S

2S = { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }

Observation: | 2S | = 2|S| ( 8 = 23 )

14
 FUNCTIONS
domain range
4 A B
f(1) = a a
1
2 b
3 c
5
f : A -> B
If A = domain
then f is a total function
otherwise f is a partial function
15
 GRAPHS
A directed graph
e
b
node
a d
edge c
• Nodes (Vertices)
V = { a, b, c, d, e }
• Edges
E = { (a,b), (b,c), (b,e),(c,a), (c,e), (d,c), (e,b), (e,d) }
16
 Labeled Graph
2
6 e
b 2
1 3
a 6 d
5
c

17
 Walk

e
b
a d

Walk is a sequence of adjacent edges

(e, d), (d, c), (c, a)

18
 Path

e
b
a d

Path is a walk where no edge is repeated

Simple path: no node is repeated

19
 Cycle

base e
b
3
a 1 d
2
c

Cycle: a walk from a node (base) to itself

Simple cycle: only the base node is repeated

20
 Euler Tour
8 base
7 e
b 1
4 6
a 5 2 d
3
c

A cycle that contains each edge once

21
 Hamiltonian Cycle
5 base
e
b 1
4
a 2 d
3
c

A simple cycle that contains all nodes

22
Finding All Simple Paths

e
b
a d

c
origin

23
 Step 1

e
b
a d

c
origin
(c, a)
(c, e)

24
 Step 2

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
25
 Step 3

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
26
 Step 4

e
b

(c, a) a d

(c, a), (a, b) c

origin
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e), (e,d)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
27
 Trees
root

parent

leaf

child

Trees have no cycles

28
 root
Level 0

Level 1
leaf Height 3

Level 2

Level 3

29
Binary Trees

30
 PROOF TECHNIQUES

• Proof by induction

• Proof by contradiction

31
 Induction

We have statements P1, P2, P3, …

If we know
• for some b that P1, P2, …, Pb are true
• for any k >= b that
P1, P2, …, Pk imply Pk+1
Then
Every Pi is true

32
 Proof by Induction
• Inductive basis
Find P1, P2, …, Pb which are true

• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume P1, P2, …, Pk are true,
for any k >= b

• Inductive step
Show that Pk+1 is true 33
 Example
Theorem: A binary tree of height n
has at most 2n leaves.
Proof by induction:
let L(i) be the maximum number of
leaves of any subtree at height i

34
We want to show: L(i) <= 2i

• Inductive basis
L(0) = 1 (the root node)

• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume L(i) <= 2i for all i = 0, 1, …, k

• Induction step
we need to show that L(k + 1) <= 2k+1 35
 Induction Step

height
k

k+1

From Inductive hypothesis: L(k) <= 2k

36
 Induction Step

height
k L(k) <= 2k

k+1

L(k+1) <= 2 * L(k) <= 2 * 2k = 2k+1

(we add at most two nodes for every leaf of level k)

37
 Remark
Recursion is another thing

Example of recursive function:

f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)

f(0) = 1, f(1) = 1

38
 Proof by Contradiction

We want to prove that a statement P is true

• we assume that P is false

• then we arrive at an incorrect conclusion
• therefore, statement P must be true

39
 Example
Theorem: 2 is not rational

Proof:
Assume by contradiction that it is rational
2 = n/m
n and m have no common factors

We will show that this is impossible

40
 2 = n/m 2 m 2 = n2

n is even
Therefore, n2 is even
n=2k

m is even
2 m2 = 4k2 m2 = 2k2
m=2p

Thus, m and n have common factor 2

Contradiction!
41