Mathematical Preliminaries

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 1

 Mathematical Preliminaries

• Sets
• Functions
• Relations
• Graphs
• Proof Techniques

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 2

 SETS
A set is a collection of elements
A  {1, 2, 3}
B  {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

We write
1 A
ship  B
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 3
 Set Representations

C = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k }

C = { a, b, …, k } finite set

S = { 2, 4, 6, … } infinite set

S = { j : j > 0, and j = 2k for some k>0 }

S = { j : j is nonnegative and even }

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 4

 A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

U
6 A
2 3 8
1
7 4 5
9
10

Universal Set: all possible elements

U = { 1 , … , 10 }
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 5
 Set Operations
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}
A B
• Union
2 4
1
A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } 3 5

• Intersection
U
A B = { 2, 3 } 2
3
• Difference
A-B={1}
1
B - A = { 4, 5 }
Venn diagrams
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 6
• Complement
Universal set = {1, …, 7}
A = { 1, 2, 3 } A = { 4, 5, 6, 7}

4
A
A 3 6
1
2
5 7

A=A
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 7
 { even integers } = { odd integers }

Integers

1 odd
even
6 5
2
0
4
3 7

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 8

 DeMorgan’s Laws

AUB=A B
U

A B=AUB
U

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 9

 Empty, Null Set:
={}

SU =S
U
S = = Universal Set

S- =S

-S=

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 10

 Subset
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A B

U
Proper Subset: A B

U
B
A

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 11

 Disjoint Sets
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 5, 6}

A B=
U

A B

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 12

 Set Cardinality
• For finite sets
A = { 2, 5, 7 }

|A| = 3

(set size)

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 13

 Powersets
A powerset is a set of sets

S = { a, b, c }

Powerset of S = the set of all the subsets of S

2S = { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }

Observation: | 2S | = 2|S| ( 8 = 23 )

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 14

 Cartesian Product
A = { 2, 4 } B = { 2, 3, 5 }

A X B = { (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), ( 4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5) }

|A X B| = |A| |B|

Generalizes to more than two sets

AXBX…XZ
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 15
 FUNCTIONS
domain range
4 A B
f(1) = a a
1
2 b
3 c
5
f : A -> B
If A = domain
then f is a total function
otherwise f is a partial function
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 16
 RELATIONS
R = {(x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), …}

xi R yi

e. g. if R = ‘>’: 2 > 1, 3 > 2, 3 > 1

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 17

 Equivalence Relations
• Reflexive: xRx
• Symmetric: xRy yRx
• Transitive: x R y and y R z xRz

Example: R = ‘=‘
•x=x
•x=y y=x
• x = y and y = z x=z

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 18

 Equivalence Classes
For equivalence relation R
equivalence class of x = {y : x R y}

Example:
R = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 4), (3, 4), (4, 3) }

Equivalence class of 1 = {1, 2}

Equivalence class of 3 = {3, 4}
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 19
 GRAPHS
A directed graph
e
b
node
a d
edge c
• Nodes (Vertices)
V = { a, b, c, d, e }
• Edges
E = { (a,b), (b,c), (b,e),(c,a), (c,e), (d,c), (e,b), (e,d) }
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 20
 Labeled Graph
2
6 e
b 2
1 3
a 6 d
5
c

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 21

 Walk

e
b
a d

Walk is a sequence of adjacent edges

(e, d), (d, c), (c, a)

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 22

 Path

e
b
a d

Path is a walk where no edge is repeated

Simple path: no node is repeated

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 23
 Cycle

base e
b
3
a 1 d
2
c

Cycle: a walk from a node (base) to itself

Simple cycle: only the base node is repeated

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 24

 Euler Tour
8 base
7 e
b 1
4 6
a 5 2 d
3
c

A cycle that contains each edge once

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 25

 Hamiltonian Cycle
5 base
e
b 1
4
a 2 d
3
c

A simple cycle that contains all nodes

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 26

 Finding All Simple Paths

e
b
a d

c
origin

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 27

 Step 1

e
b
a d

c
origin
(c, a)
(c, e)

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 28

 Step 2

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 29
 Step 3

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 30
 Step 4

e
b

(c, a) a d

(c, a), (a, b) c

origin
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e), (e,d)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 31
 Trees
root

parent

leaf

child

Trees have no cycles

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 32

 root
Level 0

Level 1
leaf Height 3

Level 2

Level 3

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 33

 Binary Trees

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 34

 PROOF TECHNIQUES

• Proof by induction

• Proof by contradiction

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 35

 Induction

We have statements P1, P2, P3, …

If we know
• for some b that P1, P2, …, Pb are true
• for any k >= b that
P1, P2, …, Pk imply Pk+1
Then
Every Pi is true

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 36

 Proof by Induction
• Inductive basis
Find P1, P2, …, Pb which are true

• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume P1, P2, …, Pk are true,
for any k >= b

• Inductive step

Fall 2005 Show that Pk+1 Costas

is true
Busch - RPI 37
 Example
Theorem: A binary tree of height n
has at most 2n leaves.
Proof by induction:
let L(i) be the maximum number of
leaves of any subtree at height i

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 38

 We want to show: L(i) <= 2i

• Inductive basis
L(0) = 1 (the root node)

• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume L(i) <= 2i for all i = 0, 1, …, k

• Induction step

Fall 2005
we need to Costas
show that
Busch - RPI
L(k + 1) <= 2 k+1
39
 Induction Step

height
k

k+1

From Inductive hypothesis: L(k) <= 2k

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 40

 Induction Step

height
k L(k) <= 2k

k+1

L(k+1) <= 2 * L(k) <= 2 * 2k = 2k+1

(we add at most two nodes for every leaf of level k)

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 41

 Remark
Recursion is another thing

Example of recursive function:

f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)

f(0) = 1, f(1) = 1

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 42

 Proof by Contradiction

We want to prove that a statement P is true

• we assume that P is false

• then we arrive at an incorrect conclusion
• therefore, statement P must be true

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 43

 Example
Theorem: 2 is not rational

Proof:
Assume by contradiction that it is rational
2 = n/m
n and m have no common factors

We will show that this is impossible

Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 44

 2 = n/m 2 m 2 = n2

n is even
Therefore, n2 is even
n=2k

m is even
2 m2 = 4k2 m2 = 2k2
m=2p

Thus, m and n have common factor 2

Contradiction!
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 45