Chapter 2 Motion and Recombination

of Electrons and Holes

2.1 Thermal Motion
3
2

1
2

Average electron or hole kinetic energy kT mvth2

vth

3kT

meff

3 1.38 1023 JK1 300K

0.26 9.1 1031 kg

2.3 105 m/s 2.3 107 cm/s

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-1

2.1 Thermal Motion

Zig-zag motion is due to collisions or scattering

with imperfections in the crystal.
Net thermal velocity is zero.
Mean time between collisions is m ~ 0.1ps
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-2

Hot-point Probe can determine sample doing type

Hot-point Probe
distinguishes N
and P type
semiconductors.

Thermoelectric Generator
(from heat to electricity )
and Cooler (from
electricity to refrigeration)

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-3

2.2 Drift
2.2.1 Electron and Hole Mobilities

Drift is the motion caused by an electric field.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-4

2.2.1 Electron and Hole Mobilities

m p v q E mp
v

v pE

q mp
mp

q E mp
mp
v nE

q mn
n
mn

p is the hole mobility and n is the electron mobility

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-5

2.2.1 Electron and Hole Mobilities

v = E ; has the dimensions of v/E cm/s

cm2

.
V/cm V s

Electron and hole mobilities of selected

semiconductors

n (cm2/Vs)
p (cm2/Vs)

Si
1400

Ge
3900

GaAs
8500

InAs
30000

470

1900

400

500

Based on the above table alone, which semiconductor and which carriers
(electrons or holes) are attractive for applications in high-speed devices?
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-6

Drift Velocity, Mean Free Time, Mean Free Path

EXAMPLE: Given p = 470 cm2/Vs, what is the hole drift velocity at
E = 103 V/cm? What is mp and what is the distance traveled between
collisions (called the mean free path)? Hint: When in doubt, use the
MKS system of units.
Solution: n = pE = 470 cm2/Vs 103 V/cm = 4.7 105 cm/s

mp = pmp/q =470 cm2/V s 0.39 9.110-31 kg/1.610-19 C

= 0.047 m2/V s 2.210-12 kg/C = 110-13s = 0.1 ps
mean free path = mhnth ~ 1 10-13 s 2.2107 cm/s

= 2.210-6 cm = 220 = 22 nm
This is smaller than the typical dimensions of devices, but getting close.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-7

2.2.2 Mechanisms of Carrier Scattering

There are two main causes of carrier scattering:
1. Phonon Scattering
2. Ionized-Impurity (Coulombic) Scattering
Phonon scattering mobility decreases when temperature rises:
phonon phonon

1
1
3 / 2

T
phonon density carrier thermal velocity T T 1 / 2

= q/m

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

vth T1/2
Slide 2-8

Impurity (Dopant)-Ion Scattering or Coulombic Scattering

Boron Ion

Electron

Electron

+
Arsenic
Ion

There is less change in the direction of travel if the electron zips by

the ion at a higher speed.

impurity

vth3
T 3/ 2

Na Nd
Na Nd

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-9

Total Mobility
1600

1400

phonon

Electrons

1000

-1

-1

Mobility (cm V s )

1200

800

phonon

impurity

impurity

600
400

Holes

200
0
1E14

1E15

1E16

1E17

1E18

1E19

1E20

-3

Total Impurity
(atoms cm )
Na +Concenration
Nd (cm-3)
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-10

Temperature Effect on Mobility

10 1 5

Question:
What Nd will make
dn/dT = 0 at room
temperature?

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-11

Velocity Saturation
When the kinetic energy of a carrier exceeds a critical value, it
generates an optical phonon and loses the kinetic energy.

Therefore, the kinetic energy is capped at large E, and the

velocity does not rise above a saturation velocity, vsat .
Velocity saturation has a deleterious effect on device speed as
shown in Ch. 6.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-12

2.2.3 Drift Current and Conductivity

E
unit
area

Hole current density

Jp

n
Jp = qpv

A/cm2 or C/cm2sec

EXAMPLE: If p = 1015cm-3 and v = 104 cm/s, then

Jp= 1.610-19C 1015cm-3 104cm/s
= 1.6 C/s cm2 1.6 A/cm2
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-13

2.2.3 Drift Current and Conductivity

Jp,drift = qpv = qppE

Jn,drift = qnv = qnnE
Jdrift = Jn,drift + Jp,drift = E =(qnn+qpp)E

conductivity (1/ohm-cm) of a semiconductor is

= qnn + qpp

1/ = is resistivity (ohm-cm)
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-14

DOPANT DENSITY cm-3

Relationship between Resistivity and Dopant Density

P-type

N-type

RESISTIVITY (cm)

= 1/

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-15

EXAMPLE: Temperature Dependence of Resistance

(a) What is the resistivity () of silicon doped
with 1017cm-3 of arsenic?
(b) What is the resistance (R) of a piece of this
silicon material 1m long and 0.1 m2 in crosssectional area?
Solution:
(a) Using the N-type curve in the previous
figure, we find that = 0.084 -cm.
(b) R = L/A = 0.084 -cm 1 m / 0.1 m2
= 0.084 -cm 10-4 cm/ 10-10 cm2
= 8.4 10-4
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-16

EXAMPLE: Temperature Dependence of Resistance

By what factor will R increase or decrease from
T=300 K to T=400 K?
Solution: The temperature dependent factor in (and
therefore ) is n. From the mobility vs. temperature
curve for 1017cm-3, we find that n decreases from 770
at 300K to 400 at 400K. As a result, R increases by
770
1.93
400

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-17

2.3 Diffusion Current

Particles diffuse from a higher-concentration location

to a lower-concentration location.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-18

2.3 Diffusion Current

J n,diffusion

dn
qDn
dx

J p ,diffusion

dp
qDp
dx

D is called the diffusion constant. Signs explained:

p

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-19

Total Current Review of Four Current Components

JTOTAL = Jn + Jp
dn
Jn = Jn,drift + Jn,diffusion = qnnE + qDn
dx

Jp = Jp,drift + Jp,diffusion = qppE

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

dp
qDp
dx

Slide 2-20

2.4 Relation Between the+Energy

Si

Diagram and V, E

(a)

V(x)

0.7eV

0.7V
+

N-

N type Si

x
0
(b)

Ec and Ev vary in the opposite

direction from the voltage. That
is, Ec and Ev are higher where
the voltage is lower.
dV 1 dEc 1 dEv

E(x)=
dx q dx q dx

Ec(x)

E cE(x)
f(x)

E f (x)
Ev(x)

E v (x)

0.7V

+
x

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

0.7V

(c)

Slide 2-21

E
2.5 Einstein Relationship
between D and
f

Ec(x)

Consider a piece of non-uniformly doped semiconductor.

n Nce

N-type
semiconductor
n-type semiconductor
Decreasing donor concentration

( Ec E f ) / kT

dn
N ( E E ) / kT dEc
ce c f
dx
kT
dx
n dEc
Ec(x)

kT dx
Ef

Ev(x)

n
qE
kT

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-22

2.5 Einstein Relationship between D and

dn
n

qE
dx
kT
dn
0 at equilibrium.
dx
qDn

E
0 qn nE qn
kT

J n qn nE qDn

kT
Dn
n
q

kT
p
Similarly, Dp
q

These are known as the Einstein relationship.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-23

EXAMPLE: Diffusion Constant

What is the hole diffusion constant in a piece of

silicon with p = 410 cm2 V-1s-1 ?
Solution:
kT
Dp p (26 mV) 410 cm2 V 1s 1 11 cm2 /s
q

Remember: kT/q = 26 mV at room temperature.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-24

2.6 Electron-Hole Recombination

The equilibrium carrier concentrations are denoted with
n0 and p0.
The total electron and hole concentrations can be different
from n0 and p0 .
The differences are called the excess carrier
concentrations n and p.

n n0 n'
p p0 p'

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-25

Charge Neutrality

Charge neutrality is satisfied at equilibrium (n=

p= 0).
When a non-zero n is present, an equal p may
be assumed to be present to maintain charge
equality and vice-versa.
If charge neutrality is not satisfied, the net charge
will attract or repel the (majority) carriers through
the drift current until neutrality is restored.

n' p'
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-26

Recombination Lifetime
Assume light generates n and p. If the light is
suddenly turned off, n and p decay with time
until they become zero.
The process of decay is called recombination.
The time constant of decay is the recombination
time or carrier lifetime, .
Recombination is natures way of restoring
equilibrium (n= p= 0).

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-27

Recombination Lifetime
ranges from 1ns to 1ms in Si and depends on
the density of metal impurities (contaminants)
such as Au and Pt.
These deep traps capture electrons and holes to
facilitate recombination and are called
recombination centers.
Ec

Direct
Recombination
is unfavorable in
silicon

Recombination
centers

Ev

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-28

Direct and Indirect Band Gap

Trap

Direct band gap

Example: GaAs

Indirect band gap

Example: Si

Direct recombination is efficient

as k conservation is satisfied.

Direct recombination is rare as k

conservation is not satisfied

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Rate of recombination (s-1cm-3)

dn
n

dt

n p
dn
n
p dp

dt

dt

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-30

EXAMPLE: Photoconductors

A bar of Si is doped with boron at 1015cm-3. It is

exposed to light such that electron-hole pairs are
generated throughout the volume of the bar at the
rate of 1020/scm3. The recombination lifetime is
10s. What are (a) p0 , (b) n0 , (c) p, (d) n, (e) p ,
(f) n, and (g) the np product?

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-31

EXAMPLE: Photoconductors
Solution:

(a) What is p0?

p0 = Na = 1015 cm-3
(b) What is n0 ?
n0 = ni2/p0 = 105 cm-3
(c) What is p?
In steady-state, the rate of generation is equal to the
rate of recombination.
1020/s-cm3 = p/
p= 1020/s-cm3 10-5s = 1015 cm-3
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-32

EXAMPLE: Photoconductors
(d) What is n?
n= p= 1015 cm-3
(e) What is p?
p = p0 + p= 1015cm-3 + 1015cm-3 = 21015cm-3

(f) What is n?
n = n0 + n= 105cm-3 + 1015cm-3 ~ 1015cm-3 since n0 << n
(g) What is np?
np ~ 21015cm-3 1015cm-3 = 21030 cm-6 >> ni2 = 1020 cm-6.
The np product can be very different from ni2.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-33

2.7 Thermal Generation

If n is negative, there are fewer
electrons than the equilibrium value.
As a result, there is a net rate of
thermal generation at the rate of |n|/ .

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-34

2.8 Quasi-equilibrium and Quasi-Fermi Levels

Whenever n = p 0, np ni2. We would like to preserve
and use the simple relations:

n Nc e

( Ec E f ) / kT

p Nv e

( E f Ev ) / kT

But these equations lead to np = ni2. The solution is to introduce

two quasi-Fermi levels Efn and Efp such that

n Nc e

( Ec E fn ) / kT

p Nv e

( E fp Ev ) / kT

Even when electrons and holes are not at equilibrium, within

each group the carriers can be at equilibrium. Electrons are
closely linked to other electrons but only loosely to holes.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-35

EXAMPLE: Quasi-Fermi Levels and Low-Level Injection

Consider a Si sample with Nd=1017cm-3 and n=p=1015cm-3.
(a) Find Ef .
n = Nd = 1017 cm-3 = Ncexp[(Ec Ef)/kT]
Ec Ef = 0.15 eV. (Ef is below Ec by 0.15 eV.)

Note: n and p are much less than the majority carrier

concentration. This condition is called low-level
injection.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-36

EXAMPLE: Quasi-Fermi Levels and Low-Level Injection

Now assume n = p = 1015 cm-3.
(b) Find Efn and Efp .
n = 1.011017cm-3 = Nc e

( Ec E fn ) / kT

EcEfn = kT ln(Nc/1.011017cm-3)
= 26 meV ln(2.81019cm-3/1.011017cm-3)
= 0.15 eV
Efn is nearly identical to Ef because n n0 .

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-37

EXAMPLE: Quasi-Fermi Levels

p=

1015 cm-3

= Nv e

( E fp Ev ) / kT

EfpEv = kT ln(Nv/1015cm-3)
= 26 meV ln(1.041019cm-3/1015cm-3)
= 0.24 eV
Ec

Ef

Efn

Efp
Ev

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-38

2.9 Chapter Summary

v p pE

vn - nE
J p ,drift qp pE
J n ,drift qn nE

dn
J n,diffusion qDn
dx
dp
J p ,diffusion qDp
dx

kT
Dn
n
q
kT
Dp
p
q

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-39

2.9 Chapter Summary

is the recombination lifetime.
n and p are the excess carrier concentrations.
n = n0+ n
p = p0+ p
Charge neutrality requires n= p.
rate of recombination = n/ = p/
Efn and Efp are the quasi-Fermi levels of electrons and
holes.
( E E ) / kT
n Nc e c fn
( E fp Ev ) / kT
p Nv e

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-40