http://www.nearingzero.net (nz014.

jpg)

This relates (sort of) to a demo Ill do later.

Todays lecture is brought to you by

Physics
Man

Not to be confused with

Electro-Man

(http://www.thinkgeek.com)

Brain Freeze help needed (Friday, October 4):

10:10 am 11:00 am
11:10 am 12:00 noon
free lunch after, if you want it
also need help 1:15-2:30 pm; same idea, different group
If you email about this, Ill try to get back to you with more information by Friday.

Todays agenda:
Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.
You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.

Electric Power.

You be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and
incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.

Examples

For you to work through outside of lecture.

circuit components in series

In lecture 7 (the first capacitors lecture) I suggested using
conservation of energy to show that the voltage drop across
circuit components in series is the sum of the individual voltage
drops:
Vab

C1

C2

C3

V1

V2

V3

+ V

Vab = V = V1 + V2 + V3

circuit components in series

In general, the voltage drop across resistors in series (or other
circuit components) is the sum of the individual voltage drops.
a

R1

R2

R3
b

V1

V2

V3

+ -

V
Heres what your text means by Vab:
Vab=Va-Vb=Vba

Vab = V = V1 + V2 + V3

I derived this
in lecture 7.

You may use this in tomorrows homework. It is* on your

starting equations sheet, and is a consequence of conservation
of energy. Use this in combination with Ohms Law, V=IR.
* V = 0 around closed loop

Starting at point a and following the current in a clockwise path

around the circuit and back to point a

R1

R2

R3
b

V1

V2

V3

+ -

V
- V1 - V2 - V3 + V = 0
- IR1 - IR2 - IR3 + V = 0

Again, starting at point a and following the current in a

clockwise path around the circuit and back to point a

R1

R2

R3
b

V1
- +

VB

V2

V3

+ -

VA

- V1 - V2 - V3 + VA - VB = 0
- IR1 - IR2 - IR3 + VA - VB = 0

Example: calculate I, Vab, and Vba (to be worked at the

blackboard).

5
b

10
+ -

9V

Example: calculate I, Vab, and Vba (to be worked at the

blackboard).

5
b

10
- +

+-

6V

9V

Also discuss what happens if you guess wrong current direction.

DC Currents
In Physics 24, whenever you work with currents in circuits, you
should assume (unless told otherwise) direct current.
Current in a dc circuit flows in one direction, from + to -.
We will not encounter ac circuits much in this course.

For any calculations involving household current, which is

ac, assuming dc will be close enough to give you a feel
for the physics.
If you need to learn about ac circuits, youll have courses
devoted to them.
The mathematical analysis is more complex. We have other
things to explore this semester.

emf, terminal voltage, and internal resistance

We have been making calculations with voltages from batteries
without asking detailed questions about the batteries. Now its
time to look inside the batteries.
http://www.energizer.com
We introduce a new term emf in this section.

Any device which transforms a form of energy into electric

energy is called a source of emf.
emf is an abbreviation for electromotive force, but emf is
not a force!
The emf of a source is the voltage it produces when no current
is flowing.

The voltage you measure across the terminals of a battery (or

any source of emf) is less than the emf because of internal
resistance.
Heres a battery with an emf. All batteries have an internal
emf is the zero-current potential difference
resistance:

+ -

The battery is everything

inside the green box.

Hook up a voltmeter to measure the emf:

emf

+ -

The battery is everything

inside the green box.
Getting ready to connect the
voltmeter (its not hooked up
yet).

Measuring the emf???

(emf)

+ -

The battery is everything

inside the green box.
As soon as you connect the
voltmeter, current flows.

You cant measure voltage without some (however

small) current flowing, so you cant measure emf
directly.
You can only measure Vab.

Homework hint: an ideal voltmeter would be able to measure .

For example, problem 5.33.

We model a battery as producing an emf, , and having an

internal resistance r:

+ -

The battery is everything

inside the green box.

Vab
The terminal voltage, Vab, is the voltage you measure across
the battery terminals with current flowing. When a current I
flows through the battery, Vab is related to the emf by
An extinct
starting
equation.

Vab = I r .

Not recommended for use by children under 6. Do

not continue use if you experience dizziness,
shortness of breath, or trouble sleeping. Do not
operate heavy machinery after using.

To model a battery, simply include an extra resistor to represent

the internal resistance, and label the voltage source* as an emf
instead of V (units are still volts):
+ -

If the internal resistance is negligible, simply dont include it!

If you are asked to calculate the terminal voltage, it is just Vab = Va Vb, calculated using the
techniques I am showing you today.

*Remember, all sources of emfnot just batterieshave an internal resistance.

Summary of procedures for tomorrows homework:

Draw the current in a circuit so that it flows from to +
through the battery. The sum of the potential changes
around a circuit loop is zero.
Potential decreases by IR when
current goes through a resistor.
Potential increases by when
current passes through an emf in
the direction from the - to +
terminal.

V is loop
+
I

V is +

Treat a battery internal resistance like any other resistor. If I

flows through a battery + to -, potential decreases by .

Example: a battery is known to have an emf of 9 volts. If a 1

ohm resistor is connected to the battery, the terminal voltage is
measured to be 3 volts. What is the internal resistance of the
battery?
Because the voltmeter draws
no current, r and R are in
series with a current I flowing
through both.

- Ir - IR =0
IR, the potential drop across
the resistor, is just the
potential difference Vab.
Vab = IR

R=1

emf

+ -

internal resistance r

terminal voltage Vab

the voltmeters resistance is so

large that approximately zero
current flows through the voltmeter

 - Ir - IR = 0
Ir = - IR
- IR
r=
I

r= -R
I
r=

Vab = IR

Vab
I=
R

R
-R
Vab

R=1
emf

+ -

r = R
- 1
Vab
9
r = 1 - 1 = 3 - 1 = 2
3

A rather unrealistically large value for

the internal resistance of a 9V battery.

By the way, the experiment described in the previous example

is not a very good idea.

Vab
I=
R
3
I = = 3A
1
Ill do a demo on this in a bit.

Todays agenda:
Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.

You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.

Electric Power.

You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and
incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.

Examples

For you to work through outside of lecture.

Electric Power
Last semester you defined power in terms of the work done by
a force.

dWF
PF
dt

Wed better use the same definition this semester! So we will.

We focus here on the interpretation that power is energy
transformed per time, instead of work by a force per time.

energy transformed
P
time
The above equation doesnt appear on your equation sheet, but
it should appear in your brain.

However, we begin with the work aspect. We know the work

done by the electric force in moving a charge q through a
potential difference:

Wif Uif qVi f .

The work done by the electric force in moving an infinitesimal
charge dq through a potential difference is:

dWif dq Vi f .
The instantaneous power, which is the work per time done by
the electric force, is

dWif
dq Vif
P

.
dt
dt

Lets get lazy and drop the in front of the V, but keep in the
back of our heads the understanding that we are talking about
potential difference. Then

dW
dq
P
V.
dt
dt
But wait! We defined I = dQ/dt. So

P IV.
And one more thing the negative sign means energy is being
lost. So everybody writes

P IV
and understands that P<0 means energy out, and P>0 means
energy in.

Also, using Ohms law V=IR, we can write P = I2R = V2/R.

I cant believe it, but I got soft and put P = I2R = V2/R on
your starting equation sheet.
Truth in Advertising I. The V in P=IV is a potential
difference, or voltage drop. It is really a V.

Truth in Advertising II. Your power

company doesnt sell you power. It sells
energy. Energy is power times time, so a
kilowatt-hour (what you buy from your
energy company) is an amount of energy.

Todays agenda:
Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.

You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.

Electric Power.

You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and
incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.

Examples

Mostly for you to work through outside of lecture.

Example: A 12 V battery with 2 internal resistance is

connected to a 4 resistor. Calculate (a) the rate at which
chemical energy is converted to electrical energy in the battery,
(b) the power dissipated internally in the battery, and (c) the
power output of the battery.
(a) Rate of energy conversion.

V 0

around any closed circuit loop

Start at negative terminal of

battery

R=4
+-

- I R2 - I R4 = 0

r=2

= 12 V

I = / (R2 + R4) = 12 V / 6 = 2 A
Energy is converted at the rate Pconverted=I=(2 A)(12 V)=24W.
Rate of energy conversion example.

(b) Power dissipated internally in the battery.

R=4
+-

I=2A

r=2

= 12 V

Pdissipated = I2r = (2 A)2 (2 ) = 8 W.

(c) Power output of the battery.
Poutput = Pconverted - Pdissipated = 24 W - 8 W = 16W.

Rate of energy conversion example.

(c) Power output of the battery (double-check).

I=2A

R=4
+-

I=2A

r=2

= 12 V

The output power is delivered to (and dissipated by) the

resistor:
Poutput = Presistor = I2 R = (2 A)2 (4 ) = 16W.

Rate of energy conversion example.

Example: an electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 120 V line. How

much power does it use and how much does it cost per 30 day
month if it operates 3.0 h per day and the electric company
charges 10.5 cents per kWh. For simplicity assume the current
flows steadily in one direction.

Whats the meaning of this assumption about

the current direction?

The current in your household wiring doesnt flow in one

direction, but because we havent talked about current other
than a steady flow of charge, well make the assumption. Our
calculation will be a reasonable approximation to reality.
Electric heater example.

An electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 120 V line. How much

power does it use.

P IV

P 15 A120 V 1800 W = 1.8 kW

How much does it cost per 30 day month if it operates 3.0 h
per day and the electric company charges 10.5 cents per kWh.

3 h $0.105
cos t 1.8 kW 30 days

day
kWh

cos t $17.00
Electric heater example.

How much energy is a kilowatt hour (kWh)?

1 kW1 h 1000 W3600 s

J

1000 3600 s
s

= 3.6 106 J
So a kWh is a funny unit of energy. K (kilo) and h (hours) are
lowercase, and W (James Watt) is uppercase.

Electric heater example.

How much energy did the electric heater use?

Paverage

Wdone by force
time

Energy Transformed

time

Energy Transformed Paverage time

3 h used 3600 s
J

Energy Transformed 1800 30 days

day h
Energy Transformed 583, 200,000 Joules used

Electric heater example.

Energy Transformed 583, 200,000 Joules used

Thats a ton of joules! Good bargain for $17. Thats about
34,000,000 joules per dollar (or 0.0000029/joule).
OK, used is not an SI unit, but I stuck it in there to help me
understand. And joules dont come by the ton.
One last quibble. You know from energy conservation that you
dont use up energy. You just transform it from one form to
another.

Electric heater example.

Example: a typical lightning bolt can

transfer 109 J of energy across a
potential difference of perhaps 5x107 V
during a time interval of 0.2 s. Estimate
the total amount of charge transferred,
the current and the average power over
the 0.2 s.

Numbers obtained from an old text. Actual current is likely far more.

What kind of a problem is this?

learn about
lightning at
howstuffworks

You are given energy transferred, potential difference, time.

You need to calculate charge transferred, current, and average
power. Equations for current and power are obvious:

Iavg

Pavg
Lightning bolt example.

We could calculate power right now, but lets do this in the

order requested. Besides, we cant get current without Q,
charge transferred.

U qV
We need to think in terms of energy transformations rather
than work done by forces. The equation above tells us that
potential energy stored in clouds can be transferred to the
ground (at a different potential) by moving charge from cloud
to ground. We are given energy transferred and potential
difference, so we can calculate q.
Could I think of the cloud-earth system as a giant capacitor which stores energy?
You could, except our capacitor equation U=QV/2 assumes the same charge on
both plates; thats untrue here.
Lightning bolt example.

Continuing with our energy transformation idea:

Etransferred= Qtransferred Vif
Qtransferred = Etransferred / Vif

Qtransferred = 109 J / 5x107 V

Qtransferred = 20 C

Thats a lot of charge (remember, typical charges are 10-6 C.

Once we have the charge transferred, the current is easy.

Q
I=
t
20 C
I=
= 100 A
0.2 s
Lightning bolt example.

This is probably less than the actual

current in a lightning bolt by a factor of
anywhere from 10 to 1000. See this link.

Average power is just the total energy transferred divided by

the total time.
WF
PF =
t

E transferred
P=
t
10 9 J
P=
0.2 s

P = 5109 W
P = 5 GW

The numbers in this calculation differ substantially

than the numbers in a homework problem(not
necessarily assigned this semester). This
lightning bolt carries relatively low current for a
long time through a high potential difference, and
transports a lot of energy.
In reality, there is no such thing as a universallytypical lightning bolt, so expect different results for
different bolts. See here.

Holy ****, Batman. Thats the power output of five enormous

power plants!
Lightning bolt example.

Example: the electric utility company

supplies your house with electricity
from the main power lines at 120 V.
The wire from the pole to your house
has a resistance of 0.03 . Suppose
your house is drawing 110 A of
current

I
VT

VH

(a) Find the voltage at the point where the power wire enters
your house.
VHT = IR
VT-VH = IR
VH = VT-IR
VH = (120 V) (110 A) (0.03) = 116.7 V
Household voltage example.

(b) How much power is being dissipated in the wire from the
pole to your house?

I
VT

VH

Three different ways

to solve; all will give
the correct answer.

P = IV = I2R = (V)2/R
P = I(VT-VH) = I2R = (VT-VH)2/R
P = (110 A) (120 V -116.7 V) = 363 W
or P = (110 A)2 (0.03) = 363 W
or P = (120 V 116.7 V)2 / (0.03) = 363 W
Household voltage example.

(c) How much power are you using inside your house?

I
VT

VH

You need to understand that your household voltage represents

the potential difference between the incoming and outgoing
power lines, and the outgoing is at ground (0 V in this
case)except

because the outgoing power line is at 0 V, you can

accidentally get this correct if you simply multiply the current
by the voltage at the point where the power wire enters your
house.
Household voltage example.

(c) How much power are you using inside your house?

I
VT

VH

R
P = IV

P = (110 A) (116.7 V 0 V)
P = 12840 W
You dont want to use the P=I2R=V2/R equations because you
dont know the effective resistance of your house (although you
could calculate it).
P = (110 A) (120 V) (110 A)(3.3 V) is also a reasonable way to work this part.
Household voltage example.