Week 4 - 5

Linear Programming:
The Simplex Method

To accompany
Quantitative Analysis for Management, Tenth Edition,
by Render, Stair, and Hanna
Power Point slides created by Jeff Heyl

2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, students will be able to:
1. Convert LP constraints to equalities with slack,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

surplus, and artificial variables

Set up and solve LP problems with simplex
tableaus
Interpret the meaning of every number in a
simplex tableau
Recognize special cases such as infeasibility,
unboundedness, and degeneracy
Use the simplex tables to conduct sensitivity
analysis
Construct the dual problem from the primal
problem

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Chapter Outline
9.1 Introduction
9.2 How to Set Up the Initial Simplex
Solution
9.3 Simplex Solution Procedures
9.4 The Second Simplex Tableau
9.5 Developing the Third Tableau
9.6 Review of Procedures for Solving
LP Maximization Problems
9.7 Surplus and Artificial Variables
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Chapter Outline
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13

Solving Minimization Problems

Review of Procedures for Solving
LP Minimization Problems
Special Cases
Sensitivity Analysis with the
Simplex Tableau
The Dual
Karmarkars Algorithm

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Introduction
With only two decision variables it is possible to

use graphical methods to solve LP problems

But most real life LP problems are too complex for
simple graphical procedures
We need a more powerful procedure called the
simplex method
The simplex method examines the corner points in
a systematic fashion using basic algebraic
concepts
It does this in an iterative manner until an optimal
solution is found
Each iteration moves us closer to the optimal
solution
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Introduction
Why should we study the simplex method?
It is important to understand the ideas used to

produce solutions
It provides the optimal solution to the decision
variables and the maximum profit (or minimum
cost)
It also provides important economic information
To be able to use computers successfully and to
interpret LP computer printouts, we need to know
what the simplex method is doing and why

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How To Set Up The Initial

Simplex Solution
Lets look at the Flair Furniture Company from

Chapter 7
This time well use the simplex method to solve
the problem
You may recall
T = number of tables produced
C = number of chairs produced

and
Maximize profit = $70T + $50C
subject to
2T +
1C 100
4T +
3C 240
T, C 0

(objective function)
(painting hours constraint)
(carpentry hours constraint)
(nonnegativity constraint)
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Converting the Constraints

to Equations
The inequality constraints must be converted into

equations
Less-than-or-equal-to constraints () are
converted to equations by adding a slack variable
to each
Slack variables represent unused resources
For the Flair Furniture problem, the slacks are
S1 = slack variable representing unused hours
in the painting department
S2 = slack variable representing unused hours
in the carpentry department

The constraints may now be written as

2T + 1C + S1 = 100
4T + 3C + S2 = 240

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Converting the Constraints

to Equations
If the optimal solution uses less than the

available amount of a resource, the unused

resource is slack
For example, if Flair produces T = 40 tables and
C = 10 chairs, the painting constraint will be
2T + 1C + S1 = 100
2(40) +1(10) + S1 = 100
S1 = 10
There will be 10 hours of slack, or unused

painting capacity

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Converting the Constraints

to Equations
Each slack variable must appear in every

constraint equation
Slack variables not actually needed for an
equation have a coefficient of 0
So
2T + 1C + 1S1 + 0S2 = 100
4T + 3C +0S1 + 1S2 = 240
T, C, S1, S2 0
The objective function becomes

Maximize profit = $70T + $50C + $0S1 + $0S2

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Finding an Initial Solution

Algebraically
There are now two equations and four

variables
When there are more unknowns than
equations, you have to set some of the
variables equal to 0 and solve for the
others
In this example, two variables must be set
to 0 so we can solve for the other two
A solution found in this manner is called a
basic feasible solution
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Finding an Initial Solution

Algebraically
The simplex method starts with an initial feasible

solution where all real variables are set to 0

While this is not an exciting solution, it is a corner
point solution
Starting from this point, the simplex method will
move to the corner point that yields the most
improved profit
It repeats the process until it can further improve
the solution
On the following graph, the simplex method starts
at point A and then moves to B and finally to C,
the optimal solution
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Finding an Initial Solution

Algebraically
Corner points

for the Flair

Furniture
Company
problem

100
Number of Chairs

80

B = (0, 80)
2T + 1C 100

60

C = (30, 40)

40

4T + 3C 240

20

(0, 0) A |
0

Figure 9.1

20

D = (50, 0)
|

40
60
80
Number of Tables

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The First Simplex Tableau

Constraint equations
It simplifies handling the LP equations if we
put them in tabular form
These are the constraint equations for the Flair
Furniture problem
QUANTITY
(RIGHT-HAND SIDE)

SOLUTION MIX

S1

S2

S1

100

S2

240

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The First Simplex Tableau

S
co lac
lu k v
m a
ns ria

C
co on
lu sta
m n
n t

bl
es

es
R
co ea
lu l va
m r
ns iab
l

m
ix

P
co rod
lu uc
m ti
n on

P
co rof
lu it p
m e
n r

un
it

The first tableau is is called a simplex tableau

Cj

SOLUTION
MIX

$70
T

$50
C

$0
S1

$0
S2

QUANTITY

$0

S1

100

$0

S2

240

Zj

$0

$0

$0

$0

$0

Gross
profit row

Cj - Zj

$70

$50

$0

$0

$0

Net profit row

Profit per
unit row
Constraint
equation rows

Table 9.1
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The First Simplex Tableau

The numbers in the first row represent the

coefficients in the first constraint and the

numbers in the second the second constraint
At the initial solution, T = 0 and C = 0, so S1 = 100
and S2 = 240
The two slack variables are the initial solution mix
The values are found in the QUANTITY column
The initial solution is a basic feasible solution

T
C
S1
S2

0
0
100
240
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The First Simplex Tableau

Variables in the solution mix, called the basis in

LP terminology, are referred to as basic variables

Variables not in the solution mix or basis (value
of 0) are called nonbasic variables
The optimal solution was T = 30, C = 40, S1 = 0,
and S2 = 0
The final basic variables would be
T
C
S1
S2

30
40
0
0
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The First Simplex Tableau

Substitution rates
The numbers in the body of the tableau are the
coefficients of the constraint equations
These can also be thought of as substitution
rates
Using the variable T as an example, if Flair
were to produce 1 table (T = 1), 2 units of S1
and 4 units of S2 would have to be removed
from the solution
Similarly, the substitution rates for C are 1 unit
of S1 and 3 units of S2
Also, for a variable to appear in the solution
mix, it must have a 1 someplace in its column
and 0s in every other place in that column

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The First Simplex Tableau

Adding the objective function
We add a row to the tableau to reflect the
objective function values for each variable
These contribution rates are called Cj and
appear just above each respective variable
In the leftmost column, Cj indicates the unit
profit for each variable currently in the
solution mix
Cj

$70

$50

$0

$0

SOLUTION
MIX

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$0

S1

100

$0

S2

240
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The First Simplex Tableau

The Zj and Cj Zj rows
We can complete the initial tableau by adding
two final rows
These rows provide important economic
information including total profit and whether
the current solution is optimal
We compute the Zj value by multiplying the
contribution value of each number in a column
by each number in that row and the jth
column, and summing

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The First Simplex Tableau

The Zj value for the quantity column provides the

total contribution of the given solution

Zj (gross profit) = (Profit per unit of S1) (Number of units of S1)

+ (profit per unit of S2) (Number of units of S2)
= $0 100 units + $0 240 units
= $0 profit

The Zj values in the other columns represent the

gross profit given up by adding one unit of this

variable into the current solution
Zj = (Profit per unit of S1) (Substitution rate in row 1)
+ (profit per unit of S2) (Substitution rate in row 2)

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The First Simplex Tableau

Thus,

Zj (for column T) = ($0)(2) + ($0)(4) = $0

Zj (for column C) = ($0)(1) + ($0)(3) = $0
Zj (for column S1) = ($0)(1) + ($0)(0) = $0
Zj (for column S2) = ($0)(0) + ($0)(1) = $0
We can see that no profit is lost by adding one

unit of either T (tables), C (chairs), S1, or S2

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The First Simplex Tableau

The Cj Zj number in each column represents the

net profit that will result from introducing 1 unit of

each product or variable into the solution
It is computed by subtracting the Zj total for each
column from the Cj value at the very top of that
variables column
COLUMN
T

Cj for column

$70

$50

Zj for column

$70

$50

Cj Zj for column

S1

S2

$0

$0

$0

$0
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The First Simplex Tableau

Obviously with a profit of $0, the initial solution is

not optimal
By examining the numbers in the Cj Zj row in
Table 9.1, we can see that the total profits can be
increased by $70 for each unit of T and $50 for
each unit of C
A negative number in the number in the Cj Zj row
would tell us that the profits would decrease if the
corresponding variable were added to the
solution mix
An optimal solution is reached when there are no
positive numbers in the Cj Zj row
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Simplex Solution Procedures

After an initial tableau has been

completed, we proceed through a series of

five steps to compute all the numbers
needed in the next tableau
The calculations are not difficult, but they
are complex enough that even the
smallest arithmetic error can produce a
wrong answer

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Five Steps of the Simplex Method for

Maximization Problems
1. Determine the variable to enter the solution mix

next. One way of doing this is by identifying the

column, and hence the variable, with the largest
positive number in the Cj - Zj row of the preceding
tableau. The column identified in this step is called
the pivot column.
column
2. Determine which variable to replace. This is
accomplished by dividing the quantity column by
the corresponding number in the column selected
in step 1. The row with the smallest nonnegative
number calculated in this fashion will be replaced
in the next tableau. This row is often referred to as
the pivot row.
row The number at the intersection of
the pivot row and pivot column is the pivot
number.
number
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Five Steps of the Simplex Method for

Maximization Problems
3. Compute new values for the pivot row. To do this, we

simply divide every number in the row by the pivot

number.
4. Compute the new values for each remaining row. All
remaining rows are calculated as follows:
(New row numbers) = (Numbers in old row)

Number above
or below
pivot number

Corresponding number in
the new row, that is, the
row replaced in step 3

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Five Steps of the Simplex Method for

Maximization Problems
5. Compute the Zj and Cj - Zj rows, as demonstrated

in the initial tableau. If all the numbers in the Cj - Zj

row are 0 or negative, an optimal solution has
been reached. If this is not the case, return to step
1.

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The Second Simplex Tableau

We can now apply these steps to the Flair

Furniture problem
Step 1.
1 Select the variable with the largest positive
Cj - Zj value to enter the solution next. In this case,
variable T with a contribution value of $70.

Cj

$70
SOLUTION
MIX

$50

$0

$0

S1

S2

QUANTITY
(RHS)

$0

S1

100

$0

S2

240

Zj

$0

$0

$0

$0

Cj - Zj

$70

$50
$0
Pivot column

$0

$0
total profit

Table 9.2
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The Second Simplex Tableau

Step 2.
2 Select the variable to be replaced. Either S1
or S2 will have to leave to make room for T in the
basis. The following ratios need to be calculated.
For the S1 row
100(hours of painting time available)
50 tables
2(hours required per table)
For the S2 row
240(hours of carpentry time available)
60 tables
4(hours required per table)

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The Second Simplex Tableau

We choose the smaller ratio (50) and this determines
the S1 variable is to be replaced. This corresponds to
point D on the graph in Figure 9.2.
Cj

$70
SOLUTION
MIX

$50

$0

$0
QUANTITY
(RHS)

S1

S2

100

240
Pivot row

$0

$0

$0

$50
$0
Pivot column

$0

$0

S1

$0

S2

Zj

$0

Cj - Zj

$70

3
0
Pivot number
$0

Table 9.3
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The Second Simplex Tableau

Step 3.
3 We can now begin to develop the second,
improved simplex tableau. We have to compute a
replacement for the pivot row. This is done by
dividing every number in the pivot row by the pivot
number. The new version of the pivot row is below.
2
1
2

1
0.5
2

1*
0.5
2

0
0
2

100
50
2

Cj

SOLUTION MIX

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$70

0.5

0.5

50

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The Second Simplex Tableau

Step 4.
4 Completing the rest of the tableau, the S2
row, is slightly more complicated. The right of the
following expression is used to find the left side.
Number in
New S2 Row

Number in
= Old S Row
2

Number Below
Pivot Number

Corresponding Number
in the New T Row

(4)

(1)

(4)

(0.5)

(4)

(0.5)

(4)

(0)

40

240

(4)

(50)

Cj

SOLUTION MIX

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$70

0.5

0.5

50

$0

S2

40
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The Second Simplex Tableau

1
The T column contains
and the S2 column
0
0
contains
, necessary conditions for variables to
1
be in the solution. The manipulations of steps 3 and
4 were designed to produce 0s and 1s in the
appropriate positions.

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The Second Simplex Tableau

Step 5.
5 The final step of the second iteration is to
introduce the effect of the objective function. This
involves computing the Cj - Zj rows. The Zj for the
quantity row gives us the gross profit and the other
Zj represent the gross profit given up by adding one
unit of each variable into the solution.
Zj (for T column)
Zj (for C column)
Zj (for S1 column)
Zj (for S2 column)

= ($70)(1) + ($0)(0)
= ($70)(0.5) + ($0)(1)
= ($70)(0.5) + ($0)(2)
= ($70)(0) + ($0)(1)

= $70
= $35
= $35
= $0

Zj (for total profit) = ($70)(50) + ($0)(40) = $3,500

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The Second Simplex Tableau

COLUMN
T

Cj for column

$70

$50

Zj for column

$70

$35

S1

S2

$0

$0

$35

$0

$35

$0

Cj Zj for second
column
$0
$15
Completed
simplex
tableau
Cj

$70
SOLUTION
MIX

$50

$0

$0

S1

S2

QUANTITY
(RHS)

$70

0.5

0.5

50

$0

S2

40

Zj

$70

$35

$35

$0

$3,500

Cj - Zj

$0

$15

$35

$0

Table 9.4

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Interpreting the Second Tableau

Current solution
The solution point of 50 tables and 0 chairs
(T = 50, C = 0) generates a profit of $3,500. T is
a basic variable and C is a nonbasic variable.
This corresponds to point D in Figure 9.2.
Resource information
Slack variable S2 is the unused time in the

carpentry department and is in the basis. Its

value implies there is 40 hours of unused
carpentry time remaining. Slack variable S1 is
nonbasic and has a value of 0 meaning there is
no slack time in the painting department.
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Interpreting the Second Tableau

Substitution rates
Substitution rates are the coefficients in the
heart of the tableau. In column C, if 1 unit of C
is added to the current solution, 0.5 units of T
and 1 unit of S2 must be given up. This is
because the solution T = 50 uses up all 100
hours of painting time available.
Because these are marginal rates of
substitution, so only 1 more unit of S2 is
needed to produce 1 chair
In column S1, the substitution rates mean that
if 1 hour of slack painting time is added to
producing a chair, 0.5 less of a table will be
produced
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Interpreting the Second Tableau

Net profit row
The Cj - Zj row is important for two reasons
First, it indicates whether the current solution
is optimal
When there are no positive values in the
bottom row, an optimal solution to a
maximization LP has been reached
The second reason is that we use this row to
determine which variable will enter the solution
next

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Developing the Third Tableau

Since the previous tableau is not optimal, we

repeat the five simplex steps

Step 1.
1 Variable C will enter the solution as its Cj - Zj
value of 15 is the largest positive value. The C
column is the new pivot column.
Step 2.
2 Identify the pivot row by dividing the number
in the quantity column by its corresponding
substitution rate in the C column.
50
For the T row :
100 chairs
0.5
40
For the S2 row :
40 chairs
1
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Developing the Third Tableau

These ratios correspond to the values of C at points
F and C in Figure 9.2. The S2 row has the smallest
ratio so S2 will leave the basis and will be replaced
by C.
Cj
SOLUTION
MIX

$70

$50

$0

$0

S1

S2

0.5

50

2
1
Pivot number

40

$70

0.5

$0

S2

Zj
Cj - Zj

$70
$0
Pivot column

$35

$35

$0

$15

$35

$0

QUANTITY

Pivot row
$3,500

Table 9.5
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Developing the Third Tableau

Step 3.
3 The pivot row is replaced by dividing every
number in it by the pivot point number
0
0
1

1
1
1

2
2
1

1
1
1

40
40
1

The new C row is

Cj

SOLUTION MIX

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$15

40

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Developing the Third Tableau

Step 4.
4 The new values for the T row may now be
computed
Number in
new T row

Number in
old T row

Number above
pivot number

Corresponding number
in new C row

(0.5)

(0)

0.5

(0.5)

(1)

1.5

0.5

(0.5)

(2)

0.5

(0.5)

(1)

30

50

(0.5)

(40)

Cj

SOLUTION MIX

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$70

1.5

0.5

30

$50

40
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Developing the Third Tableau

Step 5.
5 The Zj and Cj - Zj rows can now be calculated
Zj (for T column) = ($70)(1) + ($50)(0)

= $70

Zj (for C column) = ($70)(0) + ($50)(1) = $50

Zj (for S1 column) = ($70)(1.5) + ($50)(2)= $5
Zj (for S2 column) = ($70)(0.5) + ($50)(1)= $15
Zj (for total profit) = ($70)(30) + ($50)(40) = $4,100
And the net profit per unit row is now
COLUMN
T

Cj for column

$70

$50

Zj for column

$70

$50

S1

S2

$0

$0

$5

$15
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Developing the Third Tableau

Note that every number in the Cj - Zj row is 0 or

negative indicating an optimal solution has been

reached
The optimal solution is
T = 30 tables
C = 40 chairs
S1 = 0 slack hours in the painting department
S2 = 0 slack hours in the carpentry department
profit = $4,100 for the optimal solution

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Developing the Third Tableau

The final simplex tableau for the Flair Furniture

problem corresponds to point C in Figure 9.2

Cj
SOLUTION
MIX

$70

$50

$0

$0

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$70

1.5

0.5

30

$50

40

Zj

$70

$50

$5

$15

$4,100

Cj - Zj

$0

$0

$5

$15

Table 9.6

Arithmetic mistakes are easy to make

It is always a good idea to check your answer by going

back to the original constraints and objective function

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Review of Procedures for Solving

LP Maximization Problems
Formulate the LP problems objective function
and constraints
II. Add slack variables to each less-than-or-equalto constraint and to the objective function
III. Develop and initial simplex tableau with slack
variables in the basis and decision variables set
equal to 0. compute the Zj and Cj - Zj values for
this tableau.
IV. Follow the five steps until an optimal solution
has been reached
I.

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Review of Procedures for Solving

LP Maximization Problems
1. Choose the variable with the greatest positive Cj
2.

3.
4.
5.

- Zj to enter the solution in the pivot column.

Determine the solution mix variable to be
replaced and the pivot row by selecting the row
with the smallest (nonnegative) ratio of the
quantity-to-pivot column substitution rate.
Calculate the new values for the pivot row
Calculate the new values for the other row(s)
Calculate the Zj and Cj - Zj values for this
tableau. If there are any Cj - Zj numbers greater
than 0, return to step 1. If not, and optimal
solution has been reached.

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Surplus and Artificial Variables

Greater-than-or-equal-to () constraints are just as

common in real problems as less-than-or-equal-to

() constraints and equalities
To use the simplex method with these constraints,
they must be converted to a special form similar
to that made for the less-than-or-equal-to ()
constraints
If they are not, the simplex technique is unable to
set up an initial solution in the first tableau
Consider the following two constraints
Constraint 1: 5X1 + 10X2 + 8X3 210
Constraint 2: 25X1 + 30X2
= 900

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Surplus and Artificial Variables

Surplus variables
Greater-than-or-equal-to () constraints
require a different approach than the lessthan-or-equal-to () constraints we have seen
They involve the subtraction of a surplus
variable rather than the addition of a slack
variable
The surplus variable tells us how much the
solution exceeds the constraint amount
This is sometimes called negative slack

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Surplus and Artificial Variables

To convert the first constraint we subtract a

surplus variable, S1, to create an equality

Constraint 1 rewritten : 5 X 1 10 X 2 8 X 3 S1 210

If we solved this for X1 = 20, X2 = 8, X3 = 5, S1 would

be

5 X 1 10 X 2 8 X 3 S1 210
5(20) 10(8) 8(5) S1 210
100 80 40 S1 210
S1 210 220
S1 10 surplus units
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Surplus and Artificial Variables

Artificial variables
There is one more step in this process
If a surplus variable is added by itself, it would
have a negative value in the initial tableau
where all real variables are set to zero

5(0) 10(0) 8(0) S1 210

0 S1 210
S1 210
But all variables in LP problems must be

nonnegative at all times

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Surplus and Artificial Variables

To resolve this we add in another variable called

an artificial variable

Constraint 1 completed : 5 X 1 10 X 2 8 X 3 S1 A1 210

Now X1, X2, X3, and S1 can all be 0 in the initial

solution and A1 will equal 210

The same situation applies in equality constraint
equations as well
Constraint 2 rewritten : 25 X 1 30 X 2 A2 900

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9 53

Surplus and Artificial Variables

Artificial variables are inserted into equality

constraints so we can easily develop an initial

feasible solution
When a problem has many constraint equations
with many variables, it is not possible to eyeball
an initial solution
Using artificial variables allows us to use the
automatic initial solution of setting all the other
variables to 0
Unlike slack or surplus variables, artificial
variables have no meaning in the problem
formulation
They are strictly a computational tool, they will be
gone in the final solution
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9 54

Surplus and Artificial Variables

Surplus and artificial variables in the

objective function

Both types of variables must be included in

the objective function

Surplus variables, like slack variables, carry a
$0 cost coefficient
Since artificial variables must be forced out of
the solution, we assign an arbitrarily high cost
By convention we use the coefficient M (or M
in maximization problems) which simply
represents a very large number
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9 55

Surplus and Artificial Variables

A problem with this objective function

Minimize cost $5 X 1 $9 X 2 $7 X 3
And the constraint equations we saw before
would appear as follows:
Minimize cost = $5X1 + $9X2 + $7X3 + $0S1 + $MA1 + $MA2
subject to

5X1 + 10X2 +

8X3 1S1 +

1A1 +

0A2 = 210

25X1 + 30X2 +

0X3 + 0S1 +

0A1 +

1A2 = 900

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9 56

Solving Minimization Problems

Once the necessary equations are

developed for a minimization problem, we

can use the simplex method to solve for
an optimal solution

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9 57

The Muddy River Chemical

Corporation Example
The Muddy River Chemical Corporation must

produce exactly 1,000 pounds of a special

mixture of phosphate and potassium for a
customer
Phosphate costs $5 per pound and potassium $6
per pound
No more than 300 pounds of phosphate can be
used and at least 150 pounds of potassium must
be used
The company wants to find the least-cost blend
of the two ingredients

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9 58

The Muddy River Chemical

Corporation Example
The model formulation would be

Minimize cost =
subject to

$5X1 + $6X2
X1 + X2 = 1,000 lb
X1

300 lb
X2 150 lb
X1 , X2 0

where
X1 = number of pounds of phosphate
X2 = number of pounds of potassium
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9 59

The Muddy River Chemical

Corporation Example
Graphical analysis
Because there are only two decision variables,
we can plot the constraints and the feasible
region as shown in Figure 9.3
Because X1 + X2 = 1,000 is an equality, the
optimal solution must lie on this line
It must also lie between points A and B
because of the X1 300 constraint
It turns out the X2 150 is redundant and
nonbinding
The optimal corner point is point B (300, 700)
for a total cost of $5,700
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9 60

The Muddy River Chemical

Corporation Example
X2
1,000

X1 300

800
B
600
X1 + X2 = 1,000

400
200
100

0 |E
Figure 9.3

G
|

200

D|
400

H
|

600

800

X2 150
|C

1,000 X
1
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9 61

The Muddy River Chemical

Corporation Example
Rarely will problems be this simple
The simplex method can be used to solve

much more complex problems

In this example, the simplex method will
start at coroner point E, move to point F,
then G and finally to point B which is the
optimal solution

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9 62

The Muddy River Chemical

Corporation Example
Converting the constraints and objective

function

The necessary artificial variables, slack

variables, and surplus variables need to be

added to the equations
The revised model is
Minimize cost = $5X1 + $6X2
subject to
1X1 + 1X2
1X1 + 0X2
0X1 + 1X2

+ $0S1
+ 0S1
+ 1S1
+ 0S1

+ $0S2 + $MA1 + $MA2

+ 0S2 + 1A1 + 0A2 = 1,000
+ 0S2 + 0A1 + 0A2 = 300
1S2 + 0A1 + 1A2 = 150
X1, X2, S1, S2, A1, A2

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9 63

Rules of the Simplex Method for

Minimization Problems
Minimization problems are quite similar to the

maximization problems tackled earlier

The significant difference is the Cj - Zj row
We will now choose the variable with the negative
Cj - Zj that gives the largest improvement
We select the variable that decreases costs the
most
In minimization problems, an optimal solution is
reached when all the numbers in the Cj - Zj are 0
or positive
All other steps in the simplex method remain the
same
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9 64

Steps for Simplex Minimization

Problems
1. Choose the variable with the greatest negative Cj
2.

3.
4.
5.

- Zj to enter the solution in the pivot column.

Determine the solution mix variable to be
replaced and the pivot row by selecting the row
with the smallest (nonnegative) ratio of the
quantity-to-pivot column substitution rate.
Calculate the new values for the pivot row
Calculate the new values for the other row(s)
Calculate the Zj and Cj - Zj values for this
tableau. If there are any Cj - Zj numbers less than
0, return to step 1. if not, and optimal solution
has been reached.

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9 65

First Simplex Tableau for the Muddy

River Chemical Corporation Example
The initial tableau is set up in the same manner

as the in the maximization problem

The first three rows are
Note the costs for the artificial variables are $M
We simply treat this as a very large number which
forces the artificial variables out of the solution
quickly
Cj

SOLUTION MIX

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

QUANTITY

$M

A1

1,000

$0

S1

300

$M

A2

150

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9 66

First Simplex Tableau for the Muddy

River Chemical Corporation Example
The numbers in the Zj are computed by

multiplying the Cj column on the far left of the

table times the corresponding numbers in each
other column

Zj (for X1 column) = $M(1)

Zj (for X2 column) = $M(1)
Zj (for S1 column)
Zj (for S2 column)
Zj (for A1 column)
Zj (for A2 column)
Zj (for total cost)

+ $0(1)
+ $0(0)

+ $M(0)
+ $M(1)

= $M(0)
+ $0(1) + $M(0)
= $M(0)
+ $0(0) + $M(1)
= $M(1)
+ $0(0) + $M(0)
= $M(0)
+ $0(0) + $M(1)
= $M(1,000) + $0(300) + $M(150)

= $M
= $2M
= $0
= $M
= $M
= $M
= $1,150M

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9 67

First Simplex Tableau for the Muddy

River Chemical Corporation Example
The Cj Zj entires are determined as follows
COLUMN
X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

Cj for column

$5

$6

$0

$0

$M

$M

Zj for column

$M

$2M

$0

$M

$M

$M

$0

$M

$0

$0

Cj Zj for column

$M + $5

$2M + $6

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9 68

First Simplex Tableau for the Muddy

River Chemical Corporation Example
The initial solution was obtained by letting each

of the variables X1, X2, and S2 assume a value of 0

The current basic variables are A1 = 1,000, S1 =
150, and A2 = 150
The complete solution could be expressed in
vector form as
X1
X2
S1
S2
A1
A2

0
0
300
0
1,000
150
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9 69

First Simplex Tableau for the Muddy

River Chemical Corporation Example
The initial tableau
Cj
SOLUTION
MIX

$5

$6

$0

$0

$M

$M

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

QUANTITY

$M

A1

1,000

$0

S1

300

$M

A2

150

Pivot number

Pivot row

Zj

$M

$2M

$0

$M

$M

$M

Cj Zj

$M + $5

2M + $6

$0

$M

$0

$0

$1,150M

Pivot column
Table 9.7
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9 70

Developing the Second Tableau

In the Cj Zj row there are two entries with negative

values, X1 and X2
This means an optimal solution does not yet exist
The negative entry for X2 indicates it has the will
result in the largest improvement, which means it
will enter the solution next
To find the variable that will leave the solution, we
divide the elements in the quantity column by the
respective pivot column substitution rates

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9 71

Developing the Second Tableau

1,000
For the A1 row
1,000
1
300
For the S1 row
0
150
For the A2 row
150
1

(this is an undefined ratio,

so we ignore it)
(smallest quotient,
indicating pivot row)

Hence the pivot row is the A2 row and the pivot

number is at the intersection of the X2 column and

the A2 row
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9 72

Developing the Second Tableau

The entering row for the next tableau is found by

dividing each element in the pivot row by the pivot

number

(New row numbers) = (Numbers in old row)

Number above or
below pivot
number
A1 Row
1
0
0
1
1
1
850

number
Corresponding
in newly replaced row

= 1 (1)(0)
1
= 1 (1)(1)
0
= 0 (1)(0)
1
= 0 (1)(1)
0
= 1 (1)(0)
0
= 0 (1)(1)
0
= 1,000 (1)(150) 300

S1 Row
= 1 (0)(0)
= 0 (0)(1)
= 1 (0)(0)
= 0 (0)(1)
= 0 (0)(0)
= 0 (0)(1)
= 300 (0)(150)
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9 73

Developing the Second Tableau

The Zj and Cj Zj rows are computed next
Zj (for X1)
Zj (for X2)
Zj (for S1)

= $M(1)
= $M(0)
= $M(0)

+ $0(1)
+ $0(0)
+ $0(1)

+ $6(0)
+ $6(1)
+ $6(0)

= $M
= $6
= $0

Zj (for S2)
Zj (for A1)
Zj (for A2)
Zj (for total cost)

= $M(1) + $0(0) + $6(1) = $M 6

= $M(1) + $0(0) + $6(0) = $M
= $M(1) + $0(0) + $6(1) = $M + 6
= $M(850) + $0(300) + $6(150) = $850M + 900
COLUMN

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

Cj for column

$5

$6

$0

$0

$M

$M

Zj for column

$M

$6

$0

$M 6

$M

$M + 6

Cj Zj for column

$M + $5

$0

$0

$M + 6

$0

$2M 6

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9 74

Developing the Second Tableau

Second simplex tableau
Cj

$5

$6

$0

$0

$M

$M

SOLUTION
MIX

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

QUANTITY

$M

A1

850

$0

S1

300

Pivot number

Pivot row

X2

150

Zj

$M

$6

$0

$M 6

$M

$M + 6

$850M +
$900

Cj Zj

$M + $5

$0

$0

$M + $6

$0

$2M 6

$6

Pivot column
Table 9.8
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9 75

Developing a Third Tableau

The new pivot column is the X1 column and we

check the quantity column-to-pivot column ratio

850
For the A1 row
850
1
300
For the S1 row
300
(smallest ratio)
1
150
For the X 2 row
undefined
0

Hence variable S1 will be replaced by X1

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9 76

Developing a Third Tableau

To replace the pivot row we divide each number in

the S1 row by 1 leaving it unchanged

The other calculations are shown below
A1 Row
0
0
1
1
1
1
550

= 1 (1)(1)
= 0 (1)(0)
= 0 (1)(1)
= 1 (1)(0)
= 1 (1)(0)
= 1 (1)(0)
= 850 (1)(300)

S1 Row
0
1
0
1
0
1
150

= 0 (0)(1)
= 1 (0)(0)
= 0 (0)(1)
= 1 (0)(0)
= 0 (0)(0)
= 1 (0)(0)
= 150 (0)(300)

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Developing a Third Tableau

The Zj and Cj Zj rows are computed next
Zj (for X1)
Zj (for X2)
Zj (for S1)
Zj (for S2)

= $M(0)
= $M(0)
= $M(1)
= $M(1)

+ $5(1)
+ $5(0)
+ $5(1)
+ $5(0)

+ $6(0)
+ $6(1)
+ $6(0)
+ $6(1)

= $5
= $6
= $M + 5
= $M 6

Zj (for A1)
= $M(1) + $5(0) + $6(0) = $M
Zj (for A2)
= $M(1) + $5(0) + $6(1) = $M + 6
Zj (for total cost) = $M(550) + $5(300) + $6(150) = $550M + 2,400
COLUMN

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

Cj for column

$5

$6

$0

$0

$M

$M

Zj for column

$5

$6

$M + 5

$M 6

$M

$M + 6

Cj Zj for column

$0

$0

$M - 5

$M + 6

$0

$2M 6

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9 78

Developing a Third Tableau

The third simplex tableau for the Muddy River

Chemical problem

Cj

$5

$6

$0

$0

$M

$M

SOLUTION
MIX

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

QUANTITY

A1

550

$M

Pivot number

Pivot row

$5

X1

300

$6

X2

150

Zj

$5

$6

$M + 5

$M 6

$M

$M + 6

$550M + 2,400

Cj Zj

$0

$0

$M 5

$M + 6

$0
$2M 6
Pivot column

Table 9.9
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9 79

Fourth Tableau for Muddy River

The new pivot column is the S2 column

550
For the A1 row
550
1
300
For the X 1 row
0
150
For the X 2 row
1

(row to be replaced)
(undefined)
(not considered
because it is
negative)

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9 80

Fourth Tableau for Muddy River

Each number in the pivot row is again divided by 1
The other calculations are shown below
X1 Row
1
0
1
0
0
0
300

= 1 (0)(0)
= 0 (0)(0)
= 1 (0)(1)
= 0 (0)(1)
= 0 (0)(1)
= 0 (0)(1)
= 300 (0)(550)

X2 Row
0
1
1
0
1
0
700

= 0 (1)(0)
= 1 (1)(0)
= 0 (1)(1)
= 1 (1)(1)
= 0 (1)(1)
= 1 (1)(1)
= 150 (1)(550)

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Fourth Tableau for Muddy River

Finally the Zj and Cj Zj rows are computed
Zj (for X1)
Zj (for X2)
Zj (for S1)
Zj (for S2)

= $0(0)
= $(0)
= $0(1)
= $0(1)

+ $5(1)
+ $5(0)
+ $5(1)
+ $5(0)

+ $6(0)
+ $6(1)
+ $6(1)
+ $6(0)

= $5
= $6
= $1
= $0

Zj (for A1)
= $0(1)
+ $5(0) + $6(1) = $6
Zj (for A2)
= $0(1) + $5(0) + $6(0) = $0
Zj (for total cost) = $0(550) + $5(300) + $6(700) = $5,700
COLUMN

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

Cj for column

$5

$6

$0

$0

$M

$M

Zj for column

$5

$6

$1

$0

$6

$0

Cj Zj for column

$0

$0

$1

$0

$M 6

$M

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9 82

Fourth Tableau for Muddy River

Fourth and optimal tableau for the Muddy River

Chemical Corporation problem

Cj
SOLUTION
MIX

$5

$6

$0

$0

$M

$M

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

QUANTITY

$0

S2

550

$5

X1

300

$6

X2

700

Zj

$5

$6

$1

$0

$6

$0

$5,700

Cj Zj

$0

$0

$1

$0

$M 6

$M

Table 9.10

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9 83

Review of Procedures for Solving

LP Minimization Problems
Formulate the LP problems objective function
and constraints
II. Include slack variables to each less-than-orequal-to constraint and both surplus and
artificial variables to greater-than-or-equal-to
constraints and add all variables to the objective
function
III. Develop and initial simplex tableau with artificial
and slack variables in the basis and the other
variables set equal to 0. compute the Zj and
Cj - Zj values for this tableau.
IV. Follow the five steps until an optimal solution
has been reached
I.

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9 84

Review of Procedures for Solving

LP Minimization Problems
1. Choose the variable with the negative Cj - Zj

2.

3.
4.
5.

indicating the greatest improvement to enter the

solution in the pivot column
Determine the row to be replaced and the pivot
row by selecting the row with the smallest
(nonnegative) quantity-to-pivot column
substitution rate ratio
Calculate the new values for the pivot row
Calculate the new values for the other row(s)
Calculate the Zj and Cj - Zj values for the tableau.
If there are any Cj - Zj numbers less than 0, return
to step 1. If not, and optimal solution has been
reached.
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9 85

Special Cases
We have seen how special cases arise

when solving LP problems graphically

They also apply to the simplex method
You remember the four cases are
Infeasibility
Unbounded Solutions
Degeneracy
Multiple Optimal Solutions

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9 86

Infeasibility
Infeasibility comes about when there is no

solution that satisfies all of the problems

constraints
In the simplex method, an infeasible solution is
indicated by looking at the final tableau
All Cj - Zj row entries will be of the proper sign to
imply optimality, but an artificial variable will still
be in the solution mix
A situation with no feasible solution may exist if
the problem was formulated improperly

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Infeasibility
Illustration of infeasibility
Cj

$5

$8

$0

$0

$M

$M

SOLUTION
MIX

X1

X2

S1

S2

A1

A2

QUANTITY

$5

X1

200

$8

X2

100

$M

A2

20

Zj

$5

$8

$2

$31 M

$21 M

$M

$1,800 + 20M

Cj Zj

$0

$0

$2

$M 31

$2M + 21

$0

Table 9.11

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Unbounded Solutions
Unboundedness describes linear programs that

do not have finite solutions

It occurs in maximization problems when a
solution variable can be made infinitely large
without violating a constraint
In the simplex method this will be discovered
prior to reaching the final tableau
It will be manifested when trying to decide which
variable to remove from the solution mix
If all the ratios turn out to be negative or
undefined, it indicates that the problem is
unbounded
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Unbounded Solutions
Problem with an unbounded solution
Cj
SOLUTION MIX

$6

$9

$0

$0

X1

X2

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$9

X2

30

$0

S2

10

Zj

$9

$9

$18

$0

$270

Cj - Zj

$15

$0
$18
Pivot column

$0

Table 9.12

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9 90

Unbounded Solutions
The ratios from the pivot column

30
Ratio for the X 2 row :
1
10
Ratio for the S2 row :
2

Negative ratios
unacceptable

Since both pivot column numbers are negative,

an unbounded solution is indicated

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9 91

Degeneracy
Degeneracy develops when three constraints

pass through a single point

For example, suppose a problem has only these
three constraints X1 10, X2 10, and X1 + X2 < 20
All three constraint lines will pass through the
point (10, 10)
Degeneracy is first recognized when the ratio
calculations are made
If there is a tie for the smallest ratio, this is a
signal that degeneracy exists
As a result of this, when the next tableau is
developed, one of the variables in the solution
mix will have a value of zero
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Degeneracy
Degeneracy could lead to a situation known as

cycling in which the simplex algorithm alternates

back and forth between the same nonoptimal
solutions
One simple way of dealing with the issue is to
select either row in question arbitrarily
If unlucky and cycling does occur, simply go back
and select the other row

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Degeneracy
Problem illustrating degeneracy
Cj

$5

$8

$2

$0

$0

$0

SOLUTION
MIX

X1

X2

X3

S1

S2

S3

$8

X2

0.25

10

$0

S2

0.33

20

$0

S3

0.4

10

Zj

$2

$8

$8

$16

$0

$0

$80

Cj - Zj

$3

$16

$0

$0

$0
$6
Pivot column

QUANTITY

Table 9.13

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Degeneracy
The ratios are computed as follows

10
For the X 2 row :
40
0.25
20
For the S2 row :
5
4
10
For the S3 row :
5
2

Tie for the smallest

ratio indicates
degeneracy

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9 95

Multiple Optimal Solutions

In the simplex method, multiple, or alternate,

optimal solutions can be spotted by looking at

the final tableau
If the Cj Zj value is equal to 0 for a variable that
is not in the solution mix, more than one optimal
solution exists

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Multiple Optimal Solutions

A problem with alternate optimal solutions

Cj
SOLUTION MIX

$3

$2

$0

$0

X1

X2

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$2

X2

1.5

$0

S2

0.5

Zj

$3

$2

$2

$0

$12

Cj - Zj

$0

$0

$2

$0

Table 9.14

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Sensitivity Analysis with the

Simplex Tableau
Sensitivity analysis shows how the optimal

solution and the value of its objective function

change given changes in various inputs to the
problem
Computer programs handling LP problems of all
sizes provide sensitivity analysis as an important
output feature
Those programs use the information provided in
the final simplex tableau to compute ranges for
the objective function coefficients and ranges for
the RHS values
They also provide shadow prices, a concept we
will introduce in this section
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9 98

High Note Sound Company Revisited

You will recall the model formulation is
Maximize profit =

$50X1
+
$120X2
subject to
2X1 + 4X2
80
(hours of
electrician time)
And the optimal solution is
3X1 + 1X2
60
X2 = 20 receivers
Basic
(hours
of
S2 = 40 hours slack in technician time technician
variablestime)
Nonbasic
X1 = 0 CD players
variables
S1 = 0 hours slack in electrician time
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High Note Sound Company Revisited

High Note Sound Company graphical solution
X2
(receivers)
60

Optimal Solution at Point a

40

X1 = 0 CD Players
X2 = 20 Receivers
Profits = $2,400

a = (0, 20)
20

b = (16, 12)

10

Isoprofit Line: $2,400 = 50X1 + 120X2

Figure 9.4

10

20

30

40

50

c = (20, 0)

60
X1
(CD players)
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Changes in the
Objective Function Coefficient
Optimal solution by the simplex method

Cj
SOLUTION
MIX

$50

$120

$0

$0

X1

X2

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$120

X2

0.5

0.25

20

$0

S2

2.5

0.25

40

Zj

$60

$120

$30

$0

$2,400

Cj - Zj

$10

$0

$30

$0

Table 9.15

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Changes in the
Objective Function Coefficient
Nonbasic objective function coefficient
The goal is to find out how sensitive the
problems optimal solution is to changes in the
contribution rates of variables not currently in
the basis
How much would the objective function
coefficients have to change before X1 or S1
would enter the solution mix and replace one
of the basic variables?
The answer lies in the Cj Zj row of the final
simplex tableau

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Changes in the
Objective Function Coefficient
This is a maximization problem so the basis will

not change unless the Cj Zj value of one of the

nonbasic variables becomes greater than 0
The values in the basis will not change as long as
Cj Zj
The solution will not change as long as X1 does
not exceed $60 and the contribution rate of S2
does not exceed $30
These values can also be made smaller without
limit in this situation
So the range of insignificance for the nonbasic
variables is
C j ( for X 1 ) $60
C j ( for S1 ) $30
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Changes in the
Objective Function Coefficient
Basic objective function coefficient
Sensitivity analysis on objective function
coefficients of variables in the basis or
solution mix is slightly more complex
A change in the profit or cost of a basic
variable can affect the Cj Zj values for all
nonbasic variables
Thats because the Cj value is in both the row
and column
This then impacts the Cj Zj row

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Changes in the
Objective Function Coefficient
Consider a change in the profit contribution of

stereo receivers
The current coefficient is $120
The changed coefficient will be represented as
The revised final tableau will then be
$50

$120 +

$0

$0

SOLUTION
MIX

X1

X2

S1

S2

$120 +

X2

0.5

0.25

20

$0

S2

2.5

0.25

40

Zj

$60 + 0.5

$120 +

$30 + 0.25

$0

$2,400 + 20

Cj - Zj

$10
0.5

$0

$30 0.25

$0

Cj

Table 9.16

QUANTITY

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Changes in the
Objective Function Coefficient
The new Cj Zj values in the table were

determined in the same way as previous

examples
How may the value of vary so that all Cj Zj
entries remain negative?
To find out, solve for in each column
10 0.5 0
10 0.5
20 or 20
This inequality means the optimal solution will

not change unless X2s profit coefficient

decreases by at least $20, = 20

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Changes in the
Objective Function Coefficient
Variable X1 will not enter the basis unless the

profit per receiver drops to $100 or less

For the S1 column
30 0.25 0
30 0.25
120 or 120

Since the first inequality is more binding, we can

say that the range of optimality for X2s profit

coefficient is
$100 C j ( for X 2 )

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Changes in the
Objective Function Coefficient
In larger problems, we would use this procedure

to test for the range of optimality of every real

decision variable in the final solution mix
Using this procedure helps us avoid the timeconsuming process of reformulating and
resolving the entire LP problem each time a small
change occurs
Within the bounds, changes in profit coefficients
will not force a change in the optimal solution
The value of the objective function will change,
but this is a comparatively simple calculation

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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

Making changes in the RHS values of

constraints result in changes in the feasible

region and often the optimal solution

Shadow prices
How much should a firm be willing to pay for
one additional unit of a resource?
This is called the shadow price
Shadow pricing provides an important piece of
economic information
This information is available in the final
tableau
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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

Final tableau for High Note Sound
Cj
SOLUTION
MIX

$50

$120

$0

$0

X1

X2

S1

S2

QUANTITY

$120

X2

0.5

0.25

20

$0

S2

2.5

0.25

40

Zj

$60

$120

$30

$0

$2,400

Cj - Zj

$10

$0

$30

$0

Objective function increases by $30

if 1 additional hour of electricians
time is made available
Table 9.17
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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

An important property of the Cj Zj row is that the

negatives of the numbers in its slack variable (Si)

columns provide us with shadow prices
A shadow price is the change in value of the
objective function from an increase of one unit of
a scarce resource
High Note Sound is considering hiring an extra
electrician at $22 per hour
In the final tableau we see S1 (electricians time) is
fully utilized and has a Cj Zj value of $30
They should hire the electrician as the firm will net
$8 (= $30 $22)
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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

Should High Note Sound hire a part-time audio

technician at $14 per hour?

In the final tableau we see S2 (audio technician
time) has slack capacity (40 hours) a Cj Zj value
of $0
Thus there would be no benefit to hiring an
additional audio technician

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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

Right-hand side ranging
We cant add an unlimited amount of a
resource without eventually violating one of
the other constraints
Right-hand-side ranging tells us how much we
can change the RHS of a scarce resource
without changing the shadow price
Ranging is simple in that it resembles the
simplex process

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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

This table repeats some of the information from

the final tableau for High Note Sound and

includes the ratios
QUANTITY

S1

20

0.25

20/0.25 = 80

40

0.25

40/0.25 = 160

RATIO

The smallest positive ratio (80 in this example)

tells us how many hours the electricians time

can be reduced without altering the current
solution mix

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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

The smallest negative ratio (160) tells us the

number of hours that can be added to the

resource before the solution mix changes
In this case, thats 160 hours
So the range over which the shadow price for
electricians time is valid is 0 to 240 hours
The audio technician resource is slightly different
There is slack in this resource (S2 = 40) so we can
reduce the amount available by 40 before a
shortage occurs
However, we can increase it indefinitely with no
change in the solution
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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

The substitution rates in the slack variable

column can also be used to determine the actual

values of the solution mix variables if the righthand-side of a constraint is changed using the
following relationship

New = Original + Substitution Change in

quantity
quantity
rate
the RHS

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Changes in Resources or RHS Values

For example, if 12 more electrician hours were

made available, the new values in the quantity

column of the simplex tableau are found as
follows
ORIGINAL QUANTITY

S1

20

0.25

20 + 0.25(12) = 23

40

0.25

40 + (0.25)(12) = 37

NEW QUANTITY

If 12 hours were added, X2 = 23 and S2 = 37

Total profit would be 50(0) + 120(23) = $2,760, an

increase of $360
This of course, is also equal to the shadow price
of $30 times the 12 additional hours
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Sensitivity Analysis by Computer

Solver in Excel has the capability of producing

sensitivity analysis that includes the shadow

prices of resources
The following slides present the solution to the
High Note Sound problem and the sensitivity
report showing shadow prices and ranges

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Sensitivity Analysis by Computer

Program 9.1a
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Sensitivity Analysis by Computer

Program 9.1b

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The Dual
Every LP problem has another LP problem

associated with it called the dual

The first way of stating a problem (what we have
done so far) is called the primal
The second way of stating it is called the dual
The solutions to the primal and dual are
equivalent, but they are derived through
alternative procedures
The dual contains economic information useful to
managers and may be easier to formulate

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The Dual
Generally, if the LP primal is a maximize profit

problem with less-than-or-equal-to resource

constraints, the dual will involve minimizing total
opportunity cost subject to greater-than-or-equalto product profit constraints
Formulating a dual problem is not complex and
once formulated, it is solved using the same
procedure as a regular LP problem

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The Dual
Illustrating the primal-dual relationship with the

High Note Sound Company data

The primal problem is to determine the best
production mix between CD players (X1) and
receivers (X2) to maximize profit
Maximize profit =
subject to

$50X1
+
$120X2
2X1 + 4X2
80
(hours of
available
electrician time)
3X1 + 1X2
60
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The Dual
The dual of this problem has the objective of

minimizing the opportunity cost of not using the

resources in an optimal manner
The variables in the dual are
U1 = potential hourly contribution of
electrician time, or the dual value of 1
hour of electrician time
U2 = the imputed worth of audio technician
time, or the dual of technician resource
Each constraint in the primal problem will have a
corresponding variable in the dual and each
decision variable in the primal will have a
corresponding constraint in the dual
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The Dual
The RHS quantities of the primal constraints

become the duals objective function coefficients

The total opportunity cost will be represented by
the function
Minimize opportunity cost = 80U1 + 60U2
The corresponding dual constraints are formed
from the transpose of the primal constraint
coefficients

2 U1 + 3 U2 50
4 U1 + 1 U2 120

Primal profit coefficients

Coefficients from the second
primal constraint
Coefficients from the first
primal constraint
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The Dual
The first constraint says that the total imputed

value or potential worth of the scarce resources

needed to produce a CD player must be at least
equal to the profit derived from the product
The second constraint makes an analogous
statement for the stereo receiver product

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Steps to Form the Dual

If the primal is a maximization problem in the

standard form, the dual is a minimization, and

vice versa
The RHS values of the primal constraints become
the duals objective coefficients
The primal objective function coefficients
become the RHS values of the dual constraints
The transpose of the primal constraint
coefficients become the dual constraint
coefficients
Constraint inequality signs are reversed

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Solving the Dual of the High Note

Sound Company Problem
The formulation can be restated as
Minimize
opportunity = 80U1 + 60U2 + 0S1 + 0S2 + MA1 + MA2
cost
subject to:
2U1 + 3U2 1S1
+ 1A1
= 50
4U1 + 1U2

1S2

+ 1A2 = 120

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Solving the Dual of the High Note

Sound Company Problem
The first and second tableaus
Cj

First
tableau

Second
tableau

80

60

SOLUTION
MIX

U1

U2

S1

S2

A1

A2

QUANTITY

$M

A1

50

$M

A2

120

Zj

$6M

$4M

$M

$M

$M

$M

$170M

Cj Zj

80 6M

60 4M

$80

U1

1.5

0.5

0.5

25

$M

A2

20

Xj

$80

$120
5M

$40 + 2M

$M

$40 2M

$M

Cj Xj

5M 60

2M + 40

3M 40

Table 9.18

$2,000 + 20M

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Solving the Dual of the High Note

Sound Company Problem
Comparison of the primal and dual optimal tableaus
Primals Optimal Solution
Cj

$50

$120

$0

$0

Solution Mix

X1

X2

S1

S2

Quantity

$120

X2

0.5

0.25

20

$0

S2

2.5

0.25

40

Zj

60

120

30

$2,400

Cj Zj

10

30

Duals Optimal Solution

Cj

80

60

Solution Mix

U1

U2

S1

S2

A1

A2

Quantity

80

U1

0.25

0.25

0.5

30

S1

2.5

0.5

0.25

10

Zj

80

20

20

20

$2,400

Cj Zj

40

20

M 20

Figure 9.5

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Solving the Dual of the High Note

Sound Company Problem
In the final simplex tableau of a primal problem,

the absolute values of the numbers in the Cj Zj

row under the slack variables represent the
solutions to the dual problem
They are shadow prices in the primal solution
and marginal profits in the dual
The absolute value of the numbers of the Cj Zj
values of the slack variables represent the
optimal values of the primal X1 and X2 variables
The maximum opportunity cost derived in the
dual must always equal the maximum profit
derived in the primal
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Karmakars Algorithm
In 1984, Narendra Karmakar developed a new

method of solving linear programming problems

called the Karmakar algorithm
The simplex method follows a path of points on
the outside edge of feasible space
Karmakars algorithm works by following a path a
points inside the feasible space
It is much more efficient than the simplex method
requiring less computer time to solve problems
It can also handle extremely large problems
allowing organizations to solve previously
unsolvable problems
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