Chapter1

IntroductiontoElectronics
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign
RichardC.Jaeger
TravisN.Blalock

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap11

ChapterGoals
Explorethehistoryofelectronics.
Quantifytheimpactofintegratedcircuit
technologies.
Describeclassificationofelectronicsignals.
Reviewcircuitnotationandtheory.
Introducetoleranceimpactsandanalysis.
Describeproblemsolvingapproach

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap12

TheStartoftheModernElectronicsEra

Bardeen,Shockley,andBrattainat
BellLabsBrattainandBardeen
inventedthebipolartransistorin1947.

Jaeger/Blaloc

Thefirstgermaniumbipolar
transistor.Roughly50yearslater,
electronicsaccountfor10%(4trillion
dollars)oftheworldGDP.

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap13

ElectronicsMilestones
1874

Brauninventsthesolidstate
rectifier.
1906 DeForestinventstriodevacuum
tube.
19071927
Firstradiocircuitsdevelopedfrom
diodesandtriodes.
1925 Lilienfeldfieldeffectdevicepatent
filed.
1947 BardeenandBrattainatBell
Laboratoriesinventbipolar
transistors.
1952 Commercialbipolartransistor
productionatTexasInstruments.
1956 Bardeen,Brattain,andShockley
receiveNobelprize.

Jaeger/Blaloc

1958
1961
1963
1968
1970
1971
1978
1974
1984
2000

Integratedcircuitdevelopedby
KilbyandNoyce
FirstcommercialICfromFairchild
Semiconductor
IEEEformedfrommergerorIRE
andAIEE
FirstcommercialICopamp
OnetransistorDRAMcellinvented
byDennardatIBM.
4004Intelmicroprocessor
introduced.
Firstcommercial1kilobitmemory.
8080microprocessorintroduced.
Megabitmemorychipintroduced.
Alferov,Kilby,andKromershare
Nobelprize

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap14

EvolutionofElectronicDevices

Vacuum
Tubes

Discrete
Transistors

SSIandMSI
Integrated
Circuits

VLSI
SurfaceMount
Circuits

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap15

MicroelectronicsProliferation
Theintegratedcircuitwasinventedin1958.
Worldtransistorproductionhasmorethandoubledevery
yearforthepasttwentyyears.
Everyyear,moretransistorsareproducedthaninall
previousyearscombined.
Approximately109transistorswereproducedinarecent
year.
Roughly50transistorsforeveryantintheworld.
*Source:GordonMooresPlenaryaddressatthe2003InternationalSolid
StateCircuitsConference.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap16

DeviceFeatureSize
Featuresizereductions
enabledbyprocess
innovations.
Smallerfeaturesleadto
moretransistorsperunit
areaandthereforehigher
density.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap17

RapidIncreaseinDensityof
Microelectronics

Memorychipdensity
versustime.

Jaeger/Blaloc

Microprocessorcomplexity
versustime.

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap18

SignalTypes
Analogsignalstakeon
continuousvalues
typicallycurrentor
voltage.
Digitalsignalsappearat
discretelevels.Usually
weusebinarysignals
whichutilizeonlytwo
levels.
Onelevelisreferredtoas
logical1andlogical0is
assignedtotheotherlevel.
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap19

AnalogandDigitalSignals

Analogsignalsare
continuousintimeand
voltageorcurrent.
(Chargecanalsobeused
asasignalconveyor.)
Jaeger/Blaloc

Afterdigitization,the
continuousanalogsignal
becomesasetofdiscrete
values,typicallyseparated
byfixedtimeintervals.

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap110

DigitaltoAnalog(D/A)Conversion

ForannbitD/Aconverter,theoutputvoltageisexpressed
as:
1
2
n

VO (b1 2 b2 2 ... bn 2 )VFS

Thesmallestpossiblevoltagechangeisknownastheleast
significantbitorLSB.
VLSB 2n VFS

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap111

AnalogtoDigital(A/D)Conversion

Analoginputvoltagevxisconvertedtothenearestnbitnumber.
Forafourbitconverter,0>vxinputyieldsa0000>1111digital
output.
Outputisapproximationofinputduetothelimitedresolutionofthen
bitoutput.Errorisexpressedas:
1

V v x (b1 2 b2 2 ... bn 2 )VFS

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap112

A/DConverterTransferCharacteristic

V v x (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2n )VFS

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap113

NotationalConventions
Totalsignal=DCbias+timevaryingsignal
vT VDC Vsig
iT I DC i sig

ResistanceandconductanceRandGwithsame
subscriptswilldenotereciprocalquantities.Most

convenientformwillbeusedwithinexpressions.
1
1
Gx
and g
Rx
r
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap114

ProblemSolvingApproach

Makeaclearproblemstatement.
Listknowninformationandgivendata.
Definetheunknownsrequiredtosolvetheproblem.
Listassumptions.
Developanapproachtothesolution.
Performtheanalysisbasedontheapproach.
Checktheresults.
Hastheproblembeensolved?Havealltheunknownsbeenfound?
Isthemathcorrect?

Evaluatethesolution.
Dotheresultssatisfyreasonablenessconstraints?
Arethevaluesrealizable?

Usecomputeraidedanalysistoverifyhandanalysis

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap115

WhatareReasonableNumbers?
Ifthepowersuppyis+10V,acalculatedDCbiasvalueof15V(not
withintherangeofthepowersupplyvoltages)isunreasonable.
Generally,ourbiascurrentlevelswillbebetween1uAandafew
hundredmilliamps.
Acalculatedbiascurrentof3.2ampsisprobablyunreasonableand
shouldbereexamined.
Peaktopeakacvoltagesshouldbewithinthepowersupplyvoltage
range.
Acalculatedcomponentvaluethatisunrealisticshouldberechecked.
Forexample,aresistanceequalto0.013ohms.
Giventheinherentvariationsinmostelectroniccomponents,three
significantdigitsareadequateforrepresentationofresults.Three
significantdigitsareusedthroughoutthetext.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap116

CircuitTheoryReview:VoltageDivision
v1 i sR1

and

v 2 i s R2

ApplyingKVLtotheloop,

v s v1 v 2 i s (R1 R2 )
and

is

vs
R1 R2

Combiningtheseyieldsthebasicvoltagedivisionformula:
R1
R2
v1 v s
v2 vs

R1 R2
R1 R2
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap117

CircuitTheoryReview:VoltageDivision
(cont.)
Usingthederivedequations
withtheindicatedvalues,

v1 10V

8k
8.00V
8k 2k

2k
v 2 10V
2.00V
8k 2k
DesignNote:Voltagedivisiononlyapplieswhenboth
resistorsarecarryingthesamecurrent.
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap118

CircuitTheoryReview:CurrentDivision
i s i1 i 2

where i1

vs
vs
i

and 2
R2
R1

Combiningandsolvingforvs,

1
RR
v s i s
i s 1 2 i sR1 || R2
1
1
R1 R2

R1 R2
Combiningtheseyieldsthebasiccurrentdivisionformula:
R2
R1
i1 i s
i2 i s
R1 R2
R1 R2
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircuand

Chap119

CircuitTheoryReview:Current
Division(cont.)
Usingthederivedequations
withtheindicatedvalues,

i1 5ma

3k
3.00mA
2k 3k

i 2 5ma

2k
2.00mA
2k 3k

DesignNote:Currentdivisiononlyapplieswhenthesame
voltageappearsacrossbothresistors.
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap120

CircuitTheoryReview:Theveninand
NortonEquivalentCircuits

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap121

CircuitTheoryReview:Findthe
TheveninEquivalentVoltage
Problem:FindtheThevenin
equivalentvoltageattheoutput.
Solution:
KnownInformationandGiven
Data:Circuittopologyandvalues
infigure.
Unknowns:Theveninequivalent
voltagevTH.
Approach:VoltagesourcevTHis
definedastheoutputvoltagewith
noload.
Assumptions:None.
Analysis:Nextslide

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap122

CircuitTheoryReview:Findthe
TheveninEquivalentVoltage
ApplyingKCLattheoutputnode,

vo vs vo
i1

G1 v o v s G S v o
R1
RS

Currenti1canbewrittenas: i1 G1v o v s
Combiningthepreviousequations

G1 1v s
G1 1 G S v o
G1 1

1RS
R1RS

vo
vs

vs
G1 1 G S
R1RS 1RS R1
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap123

CircuitTheoryReview:Findthe
TheveninEquivalentVoltage(cont.)
Usingthegivencomponentvalues:

1RS
50 11k

vo
vs
v s 0.718v s
1RS R1
50 11k 1k
and

v TH 0.718v s

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap124

CircuitTheoryReview:Findthe
TheveninEquivalentResistance
Problem:FindtheThevenin
equivalentresistance.
Solution:
KnownInformationand
GivenData:Circuittopology
andvaluesinfigure.
Unknowns:Thevenin
equivalentvoltagevTH.
Approach:Voltagesource
vTHisdefinedastheoutput
voltagewithnoload.
Assumptions:None.
Analysis:Nextslide

Jaeger/Blaloc

Testvoltagevxhasbeenaddedtothe
previouscircuit.Applyingvxand
solvingforixallowsustofindthe
Theveninresistanceasvx/ix.

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap125

CircuitTheoryReview:Findthe
TheveninEquivalentResistance(cont.)
ApplyingKCL,

i x i1 i1 G S v x
G1v x G1v x G S v x
G1 1 G S v x

vx
1
R1
Rth

RS
i x G1 1 G S
1
R1
20k
Rth RS
1k
1k 392 282
1
50 1
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap126

CircuitTheoryReview:FindtheNorton
EquivalentCircuit
Problem:FindtheNorton
equivalentcircuit.
Solution:
KnownInformationand
GivenData:Circuittopology
andvaluesinfigure.
Unknowns:Norton
equivalentshortcircuit
currentiN.
Approach:Evaluatecurrent
throughoutputshortcircuit.
Assumptions:None.
Analysis:Nextslide

Jaeger/Blaloc

Ashortcircuithasbeenapplied
acrosstheoutput.TheNorton
currentisthecurrentflowing
throughtheshortcircuitatthe
output.

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap127

CircuitTheoryReview:Findthe
TheveninEquivalentResistance(cont.)
ApplyingKCL,

i N i1 i1
G1v s G1v s
G1 1v s

iN

v s 1
R1

Shortcircuitattheoutputcauses
zerocurrenttoflowthroughRS.
RthisequaltoRthfoundearlier.

50 1
vs
vs
(2.55mS)v s
20k
392

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap128

FinalTheveninandNortonCircuits

CheckofResults:NotethatvTH=iNRthandthiscanbeusedtocheckthe
calculations:iNRth=(2.55mS)vs(282)=0.719vs,accuratewithin
roundofferror.
Whilethetwocircuitsareidenticalintermsofvoltagesandcurrentsat
theoutputterminals,thereisonedifferencebetweenthetwocircuits.
Withnoloadconnected,theNortoncircuitstilldissipatespower!

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap129

FrequencySpectrumofElectronic
Signals
Nonrepetitivesignalshavecontinuousspectra
oftenoccupyingabroadrangeoffrequencies
Fouriertheorytellsusthatrepetitivesignalsare
composedofasetofsinusoidalsignalswith
distinctamplitude,frequency,andphase.
Thesetofsinusoidalsignalsisknownasa
Fourierseries.
Thefrequencyspectrumofasignalisthe
amplitudeandphasecomponentsofthesignal
versusfrequency.
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap130

FrequenciesofSomeCommonSignals

Audiblesounds
BasebandTV
FMRadio
Television(Channels26)
Television(Channels713)
MaritimeandGovt.Comm.
Cellphones
SatelliteTV

Jaeger/Blaloc

20Hz20
04.5
88108
5488
174216
216450
17102690
3.74.2

MicroelectronicCircu

KHz
MHz
MHz
MHz
MHz
MHz
MHz
GHz

Chap131

FourierSeries
Anyperiodicsignalcontainsspectralcomponentsonlyatdiscrete
frequenciesrelatedtotheperiodoftheoriginalsignal.
AsquarewaveisrepresentedbythefollowingFourierseries:

2VO
1
1
v(t) VDC
sin 0 t sin 3 0 t sin 5 0 t ...

3
5

0=2/T(rad/s)isthefundamentalradianfrequencyandf 0=1/T(Hz)is
thefundamentalfrequencyofthesignal.2f 0,3f0,4f0andcalledthe
second,third,andfourthharmonicfrequencies.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap132

AmplifierBasics
Analogsignalsaretypicallymanipulatedwith
linearamplifiers.
Althoughsignalsmaybecomprisedofseveral
differentcomponents,linearitypermitsustouse
thesuperpositionprinciple.
Superpositionallowsustocalculatetheeffectof
eachofthedifferentcomponentsofasignal
individuallyandthenaddtheindividual
contributionstotheoutput.
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap133

AmplifierLinearity
v s Vs sin( s t )

Givenaninputsinusoid:
Foralinearamplifier,theoutputisat
thesamefrequency,butdifferent

amplitudeandphase.
Inphasornotation:

Amplifiergainis:

v o Vo sin( s t )
v s Vs

v o Vo( )

v o Vo( ) Vo
A

vs
Vs
Vs

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap134

AmplifierInput/OutputResponse

vs=sin2000tV
Av=5
Note:negative
gainisequivalent
to180degressof
phaseshift.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap135

IdealOperationAmplifier(OpAmp)
Idealopampsareassumedtohave
infinitevoltagegain,and
infiniteinputresistance.
Theseconditionsleadtotwoassumptionsusefulinanalyzing
idealopampcircuits:
1.Thevoltagedifferenceacrosstheinputterminalsiszero.
2.Theinputcurrentsarezero.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap136

IdealOpAmpExample
Writingaloopequation:
Fromassumption2,weknowthati=0.

Assumption1requiresv=v+=0.

Combiningtheseequationsyields:
Assumption1requiringv=v+=0
createswhatisknownasavirtual
ground.

Jaeger/Blaloc

v s i sR1 i 2 R2 v o 0
v v
is i2 s
R1
v
is s
R1
v
R2
Av o
vs
R1

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap137

IdealOpAmpExample
(AlternativeApproach)
is

Writingaloopequation:

v s v o

R1 R2

Fromassumption2,weknowthati=0.
Assumption1requiresv=v+=0.

Combiningtheseequationsyields:
DesignNote:Thevirtualgroundisnot
anactualground.Donotshortthe
invertinginputtogroundtosimplify
analysis.

Jaeger/Blaloc

vs
v v o v o
i2

R1
R2
R2

Av

v o R2

vs
R1

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap138

AmplifierFrequencyResponse
Amplifierscanbedesignedtoselectivelyamplifyspecific
rangesoffrequencies.Suchanamplifierisknownasafilter.
Severalfiltertypesareshownbelow:

LowPass

Jaeger/Blaloc

HighPass

BandPass

BandReject

MicroelectronicCircu

AllPass

Chap139

CircuitElementVariations
Allelectroniccomponentshavemanufacturingtolerances.
Resistorscanbepurchasedwith10%,5%,and
1%tolerance.(ICresistorsareoften10%.)
Capacitorscanhaveasymmetricaltolerancessuchas+20%/50%.
Powersupplyvoltagestypicallyvaryfrom1%to10%.

Deviceparameterswillalsovarywithtemperatureandage.
Circuitsmustbedesignedtoaccommodatethesevariations.
WewilluseworstcaseandMonteCarlo(statistical)
analysistoexaminetheeffectsofcomponentparameter
variations.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap140

ToleranceModeling
Forsymmetricalparametervariations
PNOM(1)PPNOM(1+)
Forexample,a10Kresistorwith5%percent
tolerancecouldtakeonthefollowingrangeof
values:
10k(10.05)R10k(1+0.05)
9,500R10,500

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap141

CircuitAnalysiswithTolerances
Worstcaseanalysis
Parametersaremanipulatedtoproducetheworstcaseminandmax
valuesofdesiredquantities.
Thiscanleadtooverdesignsincetheworstcasecombinationof
parametersisrare.
Itmaybelessexpensivetodiscardararefailurethantodesignfor
100%yield.

MonteCarloanalysis
Parametersarerandomlyvariedtogenerateasetofstatisticsfor
desiredoutputs.
Thedesigncanbeoptimizedsothatfailuresduetoparameter
variationarelessfrequentthanfailuresduetoothermechanisms.
Inthisway,thedesigndifficultyisbettermanagedthanaworstcase
approach.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap142

WorstCaseAnalysisExample
Problem:Findthenominaland
worstcasevaluesforoutput
voltageandsourcecurrent.
Solution:
KnownInformationandGiven
Data:Circuittopologyand
valuesinfigure.
Unknowns:Vonom,Vomin,Vomax,
ISnom,ISmin,ISmax.
Approach:Findnominalvalues
andthenselectR1,R2,andVs
valuestogenerateextremecases
oftheunknowns.
Assumptions:None.
Analysis:Nextslides

Jaeger/Blaloc

Nominalvoltagesolution:
R1nom
R1nom R2nom
18k
15V
5V
18k 36k

Vonom

VSnom

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap143

WorstCaseAnalysisExample(cont.)
NominalSourcecurrent:
VSnom
15V
nom
I S nom

278A
nom
18k

36k
R1 R2
RewriteVotohelpusdeterminehowtofindtheworstcasevalues.

Vo VS

Vomax

R1
R1 R2

VS
1

R2
R1

VoismaximizedformaxVs,R1andminR2.
VoisminimizedforminVs,R1,andmaxR2.

15V (1.1)
5.87V
36K (0.95)
1
18K (1.05)

Jaeger/Blaloc

Vomin

MicroelectronicCircu

15V (0.95)
4.20V
36K (1.05)
1
18K (0.95)

Chap144

WorstCaseAnalysisExample(cont.)
Worstcasesourcecurrents:

I Smax

VSmax
15V (1.1)
min

322A
min
18k(0.95)

36k(0.95)
R1 R2

I Smin

VSmin
15V (0.9)
max

238A
max
18k(1.05) 36k(1.05)
R1 R2

CheckofResults:Theworstcasevaluesrangefrom1417percent
aboveandbelowthenominalvalues.Thesumofthethreeelement
tolerancesis20percent,soourcalculatedvaluesappeartobe
reasonable.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap145

MonteCarloAnalysis
Parametersarevariedrandomlyandoutputstatisticsare
gathered.
WeuseprogramslikeMATLAB,Mathcad,ora
spreadsheettocompleteastatisticallysignificantsetof
calculations.
Forexample,withExcel ,aresistorwith5%tolerance
canbeexpressedas:
R Rnom (1 2 (RAND() 0.5))
TheRAND()functionsreturns
randomnumbersuniformly
distributedbetween0and1.
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap146

MonteCarloAnalysisExample
Problem:PerformaMonteCarlo
analysisandfindthemean,standard
deviation,min,andmaxforVo,Is,
andpowerdeliveredfromthesource.
Solution:
KnownInformationandGiven
Data:Circuittopologyandvaluesin
figure.
Unknowns:Themean,standard
deviation,min,andmaxforVo,Is,
andPs.
Approach:Useaspreadsheetto
evaluatethecircuitequationswith
randomparameters.
Assumptions:None.
Analysis:Nextslides

Jaeger/Blaloc

MonteCarloparameterdefinitions:
Vs 15(1 0.2(RAND() 0.5))
R1 18, 000(1 0.1(RAND() 0.5))
R2 36,000(1 0.1(RAND() 0.5))

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap147

MonteCarloAnalysisExample(cont.)
NominalSourcecurrent:
VSnom
15V
nom
I S nom

278A
nom
18k

36k
R1 R2
RewriteVotohelpusdeterminehowtofindtheworstcasevalues.

Vo VS

Vomax

R1
R1 R2

VS
1

R2
R1

VoismaximizedformaxVs,R1andminR2.
VoisminimizedforminVs,R1,andmaxR2.

15V (1.1)
5.87V
36K (0.95)
1
18K (1.05)

Jaeger/Blaloc

Vomin

MicroelectronicCircu

15V (0.95)
4.20V
36K (1.05)
1
18K (0.95)

Chap148

MonteCarloAnalysisExample(cont.)

Histogramofoutputvoltagefrom1000caseMonteCarlosimulation.
Seetable5.1forcompleteresults.

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap149

TemperatureCoefficients
Mostcircuitparametersaretemperaturesensitive.
P=Pnom(1+1T+2T2)whereT=TTnom
PnomisdefinedatTnom
MostversionsofSPICEallowforthe
specificationofTNOM,T,TC1(1),TC2(2).
SPICEtemperaturemodelforresistor:
R(T)=R(TNOM)*[1+TC1*(TTNOM)+TC2*(TTNOM)2]

Manyothercomponentshavesimilarmodels.
Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap150

EndofChapter1

Jaeger/Blaloc

MicroelectronicCircu

Chap151