Anfis Sistem

NeuroBehaviour
Dwi Wulandari N.P, S.Kep.,Ns

The nervous system is comprised of two

major parts, or subdivisions, the central

nervous system(CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system(PNS)

The central nervous system

includes the brain and
spinal cord. The brain and
spinal cord are protected
by bony structures,
membranes, and fluid. The
brain is held in the cranial
cavity of the skull and it
consists of the cerebrum,
cerebellum, and the brain
stem.
The nerves involved are
cranial nerves and spinal
nerves

Central Nervous
System
The central nervous system is the control

center for the body. It regulates organ

function, higher thought, and movement of
the body. The central nervous system consists
of the brain and spinal cord.

Brain
The brain is found in the cranial cavity. Within

it are found the higher nerve centers

responsible for coordinating the sensory and
motor systems of the body (forebrain).
The brain stem
houses the lower
nerve centers
(consisting of
midbrain, pons, and
medulla),

Medulla
The medulla is the control center for

respiratory, cardiovascular and digestive

functions.

Pons
The pons houses the control centers for

respiration and inhibitory functions. Here it

will interact with the cerebellum.

Cerebrum
The cerebrum, or top portion of the brain, is divided by a deep

crevice, called the longitudinal sulcus. The longitudinal sulcus

separates the cerebrum in to the right and left hemispheres. In
the hemispheres you will find the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia
and the limbic system. The two hemispheres are connected by
a bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. The right
hemisphere is responsible for the left side of the body while the
opposite is true of the left hemisphere. Each of the two
hemispheres are divided into four separated lobes: the frontal in
control of specialized motor control, learning,planning and
speech; parietal in control of somatic sensory functions;
occipital in control of vision; and temporal lobes which consists
of hearing centers and some speech. Located deep to the
temporal lobe of the cerebrum is the insula.

Cerebellum
The cerebellum is the part of the brain that is located

posterior to the medulla oblongata and pons. It

coordinates skeletal muscles to produce smooth, graceful
motions. The cerebellum receives information from our
eyes, ears, muscles, and joints about what position our
body is currently in. It also receives output from the
cerebral cortex about where these parts should be. After
processing this information, the cerebellum sends motor
impulses from the brainstem to the skeletal muscles. The
main function of the cerebellum is coordination. The
cerebellum is also responsible for balance and posture. It
also assists us when we are learning a new motor skill,
such as playing a sport or musical instrument.

Image of the brain, showing the Limbic

system.

The Limbic System

The Limbic System is a complex set of structures

found just beneath the cerebrum and on both sides

of the thalamus. It combines higher mental
functions, and primitive emotion, into one system. It
is often referred to as the emotional nervous system.
It is not only responsible for our emotional lives, but
also our higher mental functions, such as learning
and formation of memories.
The Limbic system explains why some things seem
so pleasurable to us, such as eating and why some
medical conditions are caused by mental stress,
such as high blood pressure.

Structures of the Limbic System

1.The Hippocampus

The Hippocampus is found deep in the temporal

lobe, shaped like a seahorse. It consists of two
horns that curve back from the amygdala. It is
situated in the brain so as to make the prefrontal
area aware of our past experiences stored in that
area. The prefrontal area of the brain consults this
structure to use memories to modify our behavior.
The hippocampus is responsible for memory.

Amygdala
The Amygdala is a little almond shaped structure,

deep inside the anteroinferior region of the

temporal lobe, connects with the hippocampus,
the septi nuclei, the prefrontal area and the
medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus.
These connections make it possible for the
amigdala to play its important role on the
mediation and control of such activities and
feelings as love, friendship, affection, and
expression of mood.
The amygdala is the center for identification of
danger and is fundamental for self preservation.
The amygdala is the nucleus responsible for fear.

Thalamus

Lesions or stimulation of the medial, dorsal, and

anterior nuclei of the thalamus are associated
with changes in emotional reactivity. However,
the importance of these nuclei on the regulation
of emotional behavior is not due to the thalamus
itself, but to the connections of these nuclei with
other limbic system structures. The medial dorsal
nucleus makes connections with cortical zones of
the prefrontal area and with the hypothalamus.
The anterior nuclei connect with the mamillary
bodies and through them, via fornix, with the
hippocampus and the cingulated gyrus

Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus is a small part of the brain

located just below the thalamus on both sides of

the third ventricle. Lesions of the hypothalamus
interfere with several vegetative functions and
some so called motivated behaviors like
sexuality, combativeness, and hunger.
The hypothalamus also plays a role in emotion.
However, in general the hypothalamus has
more to do with the expression of emotions.
When the physical symptoms of emotion
appear, the threat they pose returns, via the
hypothalamus, to the limbic centers and then
the prefrontal nuclei, increasing anxiety.

The Fornix and Parahippocampal

These small structures are important

connecting pathways for the limbic system.

The Cingulate Gyrus

The Cingulate Gyrus is located in the medial

side of the brain between the cingulated
sulcus and the corpus callosum. There is still
much to be learned about this gyrus, but it is
already known that its frontal part coordinates
smells and sights, with pleasant memories of
previous emotions. The region participates in
the emotional reaction to pain and in the
regulation of aggressive behavior.

Memory and Learning

Memory is defined as : The mental faculty of retaining and

recalling past experiences, the act or instance of

remembering recollection. Learning takes place when we
retain and utilize past memories.
There are three basic types of memory:
1.Sensory Memory, act as a buffer for stimuli through senses. A
sensory memory retains an exact copy of what is seen or heard
2.Short Term Memory, acts as a scratch pad for temporary
recall of the information under process. Within short term memory
there are three basic operations:
1.Iconic memory - the ability to hold visual images
2.Acoustic memory- the ability to hold sounds. Can be held
longer than iconic.
3.Working memory - an active process to keep it until it is put to
use.
3.Long Term Memory, used for storage of information over a long
time

Cont...
Information from short to long term memory is

transferred after a short period. Unlike short term

memory, long term memory has little decay. Long
term potential is an enhanced response at the
synapse within the hippocampus. It is essential to
memory storage.
The limbic system isn't directly involved in long
term memory necessarily but it selects them from
short term memory, consolidates these memories
by playing them like a continuous tape, and
involves the hippocampus and amygdala.

Cont...
There are two types of long term memory:
1.Episodic Memory, represents our memory of events
and experiences in a serial form.
2.Semantic Memory, is a structured record of facts,
concepts, and skills that we have acquired
The information in the semantic memory is derived from
our own episode memory, such as that we can learn new
facts or concepts from experiences
There are three main activities that are related to

long term memory:

1.Storage
2.Deletion
3.Retrieval

Language and Speech

Language depends on semantic memory so

some of the same areas in the brain are

involved in both memory and language.
Articulation, the forming of speech, is
represented bilaterally in the motor areas.
However, language analysis and speech
formation take place in most individuals in
regions of the left hemisphere only

The two regions involved are:

1.Broca's Area is located just in front of the voice control area

of the left motor cortex. This region assembles the motor of
speech and writing. For example, patients with lesions in this
area:
1.Understand language perfectly
2.May be able to write perfectly
3.Seldom speak spontaneously
2.Wernicke's Area is part of the auditory and visual
associations cortex. This region is responsible for the analysis
and formation of language content. For example, patients with
lesions in this area:
1.Are unable to name objects
2.Are unable to understand the meaning of words
3.Articulate speech readily but usually nonsensically

Diseases of the Limbic

System
There are several well known diseases that

are disorders of the limbic system. A few are:

1.Psychosis
2.Schizophrenia
3.Depression

The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral

nervous system
includes 12 cranial
nerves 31 pairs of spinal
nerves. It can be
subdivided into the
somatic and
autonomic systems. It
is a way of
communication from the
central nervous system
to the rest of the body
by nerve impulses that
regulate the functions of
the human body.

The Cranial Nerves

The twelve cranial nerves

are
I Olfactory Nerve for smell
II Optic Nerve for vision
III Oculomotor for looking around
IV Trochlear for moving eye
V Trigeminal for feeling touch on face
VI Abducens to move eye muscles
VII
Facial to smile, wink, and help us taste
VIII Vestibulocochlear to help with balance, equilibrium, and hearing
IX Glossopharengeal for swallowing and gagging
X Vagus for swallowing, talking, and parasympathetic actions of

digestion
XI Spinal accessory for shrugging shoulders
XII
Hypoglossal for tongue more divided into different regions as
muscles

Lateral cord
The lateral cord gives rise to the following
nerves:
The lateral pectoral nerve, C5, C6 and C7 to
the pectoralis major muscle, or musculus
pectoralis major.
The musculocutaneous nerve which
innervates the biceps muscle
The median nerve, partly. The other part
comes from the medial cord. See below for
details.

Posterior cord
The posterior cord gives rise to the following nerves:
The upper subscapular nerve, C7 and C8, to the subscapularis
muscle, or musculus supca of the rotator cuff.
The lower subscapular nerve, C5 and C6, to the teres major muscle,
or the musculus teres major, also of the rotator cuff.
The thoracodorsal nerve, C6, C7 and C8, to the latissimus dorsi
muscle, or musculus latissimus dorsi.
The axillary nerve, which supplies sensation to the shoulder and
motor to the deltoid muscle or musculus deltoideus, and the teres
minor muscle, or musculus teres minor.
The radial nerve, or nervus radialis, which innervates the triceps
brachii muscle, the brachioradialis muscle, or musculus
brachioradialis,, the extensor muscles of the fingers and wrist
(extensor carpi radialis muscle), and the extensor and abductor
muscles of the thumb. See radial nerve injuries.

Medial cord
The medial cord gives rise to the following nerves:
The
The
The
The

median pectoral nerve, C8 and T1, to the pectoralis muscle

medial brachial cutaneous nerve, T1
medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve, C8 and T1
median nerve, partly. The other part comes from the lateral cord. C7, C8 and T1
nerve roots. The first branch of the median nerve is to the pronator teres muscle, then
the flexor carpi radialis, the palmaris longus and the flexor digitorum superficialis. The
median nerve provides sensation to the anterior palm, the anterior thumb, index finger
and middle finger. It is the nerve compressed in carpal tunnel syndrome.
The ulnar nerve originates in nerve roots C7, C8 and T1. It provides sensation to the
ring and pinky fingers. It innervates the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, the flexor
digitorum profundus muscle to the ring and pinky fingers, and the intrinsic muscles of
the hand (the interosseous muscle, the lumbrical muscles and the flexor pollicus brevis
muscle). This nerve traverses a groove on the elbow called the cubital tunnel, also
known as the funny bone. Striking the nerve at this point produces an unpleasant
sensation in the ring and little fingers.

The somatic nervous system is that part of the

peripheral nervous system associated with the

voluntary control of body movements through the
action of skeletal muscles, and also reception of
external stimuli. The somatic nervous system consists
of afferent fibers that receive information from
external sources, and efferent fibers that are
responsible for muscle contraction. The somatic
system includes the pathways from the skin and
skeletal muscles to the Central Nervous System. It is
also described as involved with activities that involve
consciousness.
The somatic system includes all the neurons

connected with the muscles, sense organs and skin. It

deals with sensory information and controls the
movement of the body.

The Autonomic system deals with the visceral organs, like

the heart, stomach, gland, and the intestines. It regulates

systems that are unconsciously carried out to keep our body
alive and well, such as breathing, digestion (peristalsis), and
regulation of the heartbeat.
The Autonomic system consists of the sympathetic and

the parasympathetic divisions. Both divisions work without

conscious effort, and they have similar nerve pathways, but
the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems generally
have opposite effects on target tissues (they are
antagonistic). By controlling the relative input from each
division, the autonomic system regulates many aspects of
homeostasis. One of the main nerves for the
parasympathetic autonomic system is Cranial Nerve X, the
Vegas nerve.

Nervous Tissue
The nervous system coordinates the activity

of the muscles, monitors the organs,

constructs and also stops input from the
senses, and initiates actions. Prominent
participants in a nervous system include
neurons and nerves, which play roles in such
coordination.Our nervous tissue only consists
of two types of cells. These cells are neurons
and neuroglia cells. The neurons are
responsible for transmitting nerve impulses.
Neuroglia cells are responsible for supporting
and nourishing the neuron cells.