Chi-Square Tests: Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

CHAPTER 11
CHI-SQUARE TESTS
Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Opening Example

THE CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION
Definition
The chi-square distribution has only one
parameter called the degrees of freedom. The
shape of a chi-squared distribution curve is skewed
to the right for small df and becomes symmetric for
large df. The entire chi-square distribution curve
lies to the right of the vertical axis. The chi-square
distribution assumes nonnegative values only, and
these are denoted by the symbol 2 (read as chisquare).

Figure 11.1 Three chi-square

distribution curves.

Example 11-1
Find the value of for 7 degrees of

freedom and an area of .10 in the right tail
of the chi-square distribution curve.

Table 11.1 2 for df = 7 and .10 Area in

the Right Tail

Figure 11.2

Example 11-2
Find the value of for 12 degrees of

freedom and an area of .05 in the left tail of
the chi-square distribution curve.

Example 11-2: Solution
Area in the right tail

= 1 Area in the left tail
= 1 .05 = .95

Table 11.2 2 for df = 12 and .95 Area

in the Right
Tail

Figure 11.3

A GOODNESS-OF-FIT TEST
Definition
An experiment with the following characteristics is
called a multinomial experiment.
1.
It consists of n identical trials (repetitions).
Each trial results in one of k possible outcomes (or

categories), where k > 2.
3. The trials are independent.
4. The probabilities of the various outcomes remain
constant for each trial.
2.

Definition
The frequencies obtained from the performance of
an experiment are called the observed
frequencies and are denoted by O. The expected
frequencies, denoted by E, are the frequencies
that we expect to obtain if the null hypothesis is
true. The expected frequency for a category is
obtained as
E = np
where n is the sample size and p is the probability
that an element belongs to that category if the null
hypothesis is true.
Degrees of Freedom for a Goodness-of-Fit

Test
In a goodness-of-fit test, the degrees of
freedom are
df = k 1
where k denotes the number of possible
outcomes (or categories) for the
experiment.
Test Statistic for a Goodness-of-Fit

Test
The test statistic for a goodness-of-fit test is 2

and its value is calculated as
2
(
O
E
)
2
E
where
O = observed frequency for a category
E = expected frequency for a category = np
Remember that a chi-square goodness-of-fit test is
always right-tailed.
Example 11-3
A bank has an ATM installed inside the bank, and

it is available to its customers only from 7 AM to 6
PM Monday through Friday. The manager of the
bank wanted to investigate if the percentage of
transactions made on this ATM is the same for
each of the 5 days (Monday through Friday) of the
week. She randomly selected one week and
counted the number of transactions made on this
ATM on each of the 5 days during this week. The
information she obtained is given in the following
table, where the number of users represents the
number of transactions on this ATM on these days.
For convenience, we will refer to these
transactions as people or users.
Example 11-3
At the 1% level of significance, can we reject the

null hypothesis that the number of people who
use this ATM each of the 5 days of the week is the
same? Assume that this week is typical of all
weeks in regard to the use of this ATM.


Step 1:
H0 : p1 = p2 = p3 = p4 = p5 = .20
H1 : At least two of the five proportions are

not equal to .20


Step 2:
There are 5 categories
5 days on which the ATM is used

Multinomial experiment
We use the chi-square distribution to make

this test.


Step 3:
Area in the right tail = = .01
k = number of categories = 5
df = k 1 = 5 1 = 4
The critical value of 2 = 13.277

Figure 11.4

Table 11.3 Calculating the Value of the

Test Statistic


Step 4:
All the required calculations to find the
value of the test statistic 2 are shown in
Table 11.3.
(O E )

23.184
E
2


Step 5:
The value of the test statistic 2 = 23.184 is
larger than the critical value of 2 = 13.277
It falls in the rejection region
Hence, we reject the null hypothesis

We state that the number of persons who
use this ATM is not the same for the 5 days
of the week.

Example 11-4
In a July 23, 2009, Harris Interactive Poll, 1015

advertisers were asked about their opinions of
Twitter. The percentage distribution of their
responses is shown in the following table.

Example 11-4
Assume that these percentage hold true for the
2009 population of advertisers. Recently 800
randomly selected advertisers were asked the
same question. The following table lists the
number of advertisers in this sample who gave
each response.

Example 11-4
Test at the 2.5% level of significance whether the
current distribution of opinions is different from
that for 2009.


Step 1:
H0 : The
opinions
H1 : The
opinions
current percentage distribution of

is the same as for 2009.
current percentage distribution of
is different from that for 2009.


Step 2:
There are 4 categories
5 days on opinion
Multinomial experiment
We use the chi-square distribution to make

this test.


Step 3:
Area in the right tail = = .025
k = number of categories = 4
df = k 1 = 4 1 = 3

Figure 11.5

Table 11.4 Calculating the Value of the

Test Statistic


Step 4:
All the required calculations to find the
value of the test statistic 2 are shown in
Table 11.4.
(O E )

6.420
E
2


Step 5:
The value of the test statistic 2 = 5.420 is
smaller than the critical value of 2 = 9.348
It falls in the nonrejection region
Hence, we fail to reject the null hypothesis

We state that the current percentage
distribution of opinions is the same as for
2009.

Case Study 11-1 What Is Your

Favorite Season?

CONTINGENCY TABLES

A TEST OF INDEPENDENCE OR
HOMOGENEITY
A Test of Independence
A Test of Homogeneity

Definition
A test of independence involves a test of the
null hypothesis that two attributes of a
population are not related. The degrees of
freedom for a test of independence are
df = (R 1)(C 1)
Where R and C are the number of rows and
the number of columns, respectively, in the
given contingency table.
Test Statistic for a Test of Independence

The value of the test statistic 2 for a test
of independence is calculated as
2
(
O
E
)
2
E
where O and E are the observed and

expected frequencies, respectively, for a
cell.
Example 11-5
Violence and lack of discipline have become

major problems in schools in the United
States. A random sample of 300 adults was
selected, and these adults were asked if
they favor giving more freedom to
schoolteachers to punish students for
violence and lack of discipline. The two-way
classification of the responses of these
adults is represented in the following table.
Example 11-5
Calculate the expected frequencies for

this table, assuming that the two
attributes, gender and opinions on the
issue, are independent.

Table 11.6 Observed Frequencies

Expected Frequencies for a Test

of Independence
The expected frequency E for a cell is

calculated as
(Row total)(Column total)

E
sample size


Table 11.7 Observed and Expected Frequencies

Example 11-6
Reconsider the two-way classification table given in

Example 11-5. In that example, a random sample
of 300 adults was selected, and they were asked if
they favor giving more freedom to schoolteachers
to punish students for violence and lack of
discipline. Based on the results of the survey, a
two-way classification table was prepared and
presented in Example 11-5. Does the sample
provide sufficient information to conclude that the
two attributes, gender and opinions of adults, are
dependent? Use a 1% significance level.


Step 1:
H0: Gender and opinions of adults are
independent
H1: Gender and opinions of adults are
dependent

Step 2: We use the chi-square distribution

to make a test of independence for a
contingency table.
Step 3:
= .01
df = (R 1)(C 1) = (2 1)(3 1) = 2

Figure 11.6

Table 11.8 Observed and Expected

Frequencies


Step 4:
2
(
O
E
)
2
E
93 105.00
105.00
70 59.50
59.50
12 10.50
10.50
87 75.00
32 42.50
6 7.50
75.00
42.50
7.50
1.371 1.853 .214 1.920 2.594 .300 8.252
2


Step 5:
The value of the test statistic 2 = 8.252
It is less than the critical value of 2 = 9.210


We state that there is not enough evidence
from the sample to conclude that the two
characteristics, gender and opinions of
adults, are dependent for this issue.

Example 11-7
A researcher wanted to study the relationship

between gender and owning cell phones. She took
a sample of 2000 adults and obtained the
information given in the following table.
At the 5% level of significance, can you conclude

that gender and owning cell phones are related for
all adults?

Step 1:
H0: Gender and owning a cell phone are
not related
H1: Gender and owning a cell phone are
related


Step 2:
We are performing a test of independence
We use the chi-square distribution
Step 3:
= .05.
df = (R 1)(C 1) = (2 1)(2 1) = 1

Figure 11.7


Frequencies


Step 4:
2
(
O
E
)
2
E
640 588.60
450 501.40
588.60
501.40
440 491.40
470 418.60
491.40
481.60
4.489 5.269 5.376 6.311 21.445

Step 5:
It is larger than the critical value of 2 = 3.841

Hence, we reject the null hypothesis

A Test of Homogeneity
Definition
A test of homogeneity involves testing the
null hypothesis that the proportions of
elements with certain characteristics in two
or more different populations are the same
against the alternative hypothesis that these
proportions are not the same.

Example 11-8
Consider the data on income distributions

for households in California and Wisconsin
given in Table 11.10. Using the 2.5%
significance level, test the null hypothesis
that the distribution of households with
regard to income levels is similar
(homogeneous) for the two states.

Example 11-8
Table 11.10 Observed Frequencies


Step 1:
H0: The proportions of households that
belong to different income groups are the
same in both states
H1: The proportions of households that
belong to different income groups are not the
same in both states


to make a homogeneity test.
Step 3:
= .025
df = (R 1)(C 1) = (3 1)(2 1) = 2

Figure 11.8


Frequencies


Step 4:
2
(
O
E
)
2
E
70 65
34 39
80 75
65
39
75
2
40 45
100 110
76 66
45
110
66
.385 .641 .333 .566 .909 1.515 4.339
2


Step 5:
It is less than the critical value of 2


We state that the distribution of households
with regard to income appears to be similar
(homogeneous) in California and Wisconsin.

INFERENCES ABOUT THE

POPULATION VARIANCE
Estimation of the Population Variance
Hypothesis Tests About the Population
Variance

INFERENCES ABOUT THE

POPULATION VARIANCE
Sampling Distribution of (n 1)s2 / 2

If the population from which the sample is
selected is (approximately) normally
distributed, then
(n 1)s 2
2
has a chi-square distribution with n 1

degrees of freedom.
Confidence interval for the

population variance 2
Assuming that the population from which
the sample is selected is (approximately)
normally distributed, we obtain the (1
)100% confidence interval for the
population variance 2 as
(n 1)s
2 / 2
to
(n 1)s
12 / 2

and 1 / 2 are obtained from the
where
chi-square distribution for /2 and 1- /2
areas in the right tail of the chi-square
distribution curve, respectively, and for n1 degrees of freedom. The confidence
interval for the population standard
deviation can be obtained by simply
taking the positive square roots of the
two limits of the confidence interval for
the population variance.
2
/2

Example 11-9
One type of cookie manufactured by Haddad

Food Company is Cocoa Cookies. The
machine that fills packages of these cookies
is set up in such a way that the average net
weight of these packages is 32 ounces with a
variance of .015 square ounce. From time to
time the quality control inspector at the
company selects a sample of a few such
packages, calculates the variance of the net
weights of these packages, and construct a
Example 11-9
95% confidence interval for the population

variance. If either both or one of the two
limits of this confidence interval is not the
interval .008 to .030, the machine is
stopped and adjusted. A recently taken
random sample of 25 packages from the
production line gave a sample variance of
.029 square ounce. Based on this sample
information, do you think the machine
needs an adjustment? Assume that the
net weights of cookies in all packages are
normally distributed.
Step 1:
n = 25 and s2 = .029
Step 2:
= 1 - .95 = .05
/2 = .05/2 = .025
1 /2 = 1 .025 = .975
df = n 1 = 25 1 = 24
2 for 24 df and .025 area in the right tail = 39.364
2 for 24 df and .975 area in the right tail = 12.401
Figure 11.9


Step 3:
(n 1)s
2 / 2
(25 1)(.029)
39.364
.0177
to
(n 1)s
12 / 2
(25 1)(.029)
to
12.401
to .0561

Thus, with 95% confidence, we can state

that the variance for all packages of Cocoa
Cookies lies between .0177 and .0561
square ounce.

Hypothesis Tests About the Population

Variance
Test statistic for a Test of Hypothesis

About 2
The value of the test statistic 2 is calculated as
(n 1)s

2
where s2 is the sample variance, 2 is the

hypothesized value of the population variance, and
n 1 represents the degrees of freedom. The
population from which the sample is selected is
assumed to be (approximately) normally
distributed.
Example 11-10
One type of cookie manufactured by Haddad Food

Company is Cocoa Cookies. The machine that fills
packages of these cookies is set up in such a way
that the average net weight of these packages is
32 ounces with a variance of .015 square ounce.
From time to time the quality control inspector at
the company selects a sample of a few such
packages, calculates the variance of the net
weights of these packages, and makes a test of
hypothesis about the population variance. She
always uses = .01. The acceptable value of the
population variance is .015 square ounce or less.
Example 11-10
If the conclusion from the test of

hypothesis is that the population variance
is not within the acceptable limit, the
machine is stopped and adjusted. A
recently taken random sample of 25
packages from the production line gave a
sample variance of .029 square ounce.
Based on this sample information, do you
think the machine needs an adjustment?
Assume that the net weights of cookies in
all packages are normally distributed.

Step 1:
H0 :2 .015
The population variance is within the acceptable

limit
H1: 2 >.015
The population variance exceeds the acceptable

limit


to test a hypothesis about 2
Step 3:
= .01.
df = n 1 = 25 1 = 24

Figure 11.10


Step 4:
(n 1)s
(25 1)(.029)

46.400
2
.015
2
From H0


Step 5:
It is greater than the critical value of

Hence, we reject the null hypothesis H0
We conclude that the population variance is

not within the acceptable limit. The
machine should be stopped and adjusted.

Example 11-11
The variance of scores on a standardized

mathematics test for all high school seniors was
150 in 2009. A sample of scores for 20 high
school seniors who took this test this year gave a
variance of 170. Test at the 5% significance level if
the variance of current scores of all high school
seniors on this test is different from 150. Assume
that the scores of all high school seniors on this
test are (approximately) normally distributed.


Step 1:
H0: 2 = 150
The population variance is not different from

150
H1: 2 150
The population variance is different from 150


to test a hypothesis about 2
Step 3:
= .05
Area in the each tail = .025
df = n 1 = 20 1 = 19
The critical values of 2 32.852 and 8.907

Figure 11.11


Step 4:
2
(
n
1)
s
(20 1)(170)
2

21.533
2
150
From H0


Step 5:
It is between the two critical values of 2

Consequently, we fail to reject H0.
We conclude that the population variance of

the current scores of high school seniors on
this standardized mathematics test does
not appear to be different from 150.
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CHAPTER 11

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

THE CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Figure 11.1 Three chi-square

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Find the value of for 7 degrees of

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Table 11.1 2 for df = 7 and .10 Area in

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Find the value of for 12 degrees of

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-2: Solution

Area in the right tail

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Table 11.2 2 for df = 12 and .95 Area

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

It consists of n identical trials (repetitions).

Each trial results in one of k possible outcomes (or

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Degrees of Freedom for a Goodness-of-Fit

Test Statistic for a Goodness-of-Fit

The test statistic for a goodness-of-fit test is 2

A bank has an ATM installed inside the bank, and

At the 1% level of significance, can we reject the

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-3: Solution

H1 : At least two of the five proportions are

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-3: Solution

5 days on which the ATM is used

We use the chi-square distribution to make

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-3: Solution

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Table 11.3 Calculating the Value of the

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-3: Solution

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-3: Solution

It falls in the rejection region

Hence, we reject the null hypothesis

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

In a July 23, 2009, Harris Interactive Poll, 1015

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-4: Solution

current percentage distribution of

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-4: Solution

We use the chi-square distribution to make

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Example 11-4: Solution

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E