Energy forms

and an Introduction to Electrical

machines

Lesson 2 and 3
Jose Rizal University
ECE114 401EC

Energy can exist in various

forms.
-Radiationenergy: the radiation from
the sun contains energy, and also the
radiation from a light or a fire. More
solar energy is available when the
radiation is more intense and when it
is collected over a larger area. Light
is the visible part of radiation;

 -Chemicalenergy: wood and oil contain

energy in a chemical form. The same is true
for all other material that can burn. The
content of chemical energy is larger the
larger the heating value (calorific value) of
the material is and, of course, the more
material we have. Also animate energy
(delivered by bodies of human beings and
animals) is, in essence, chemical energy.
Furthermore, batteries contain chemical
energy;

 -Potentialenergy: this is, for

example, the energy of a water
reservoir at a certain height. The
water has the potential to fall, and
therefore contains a certain amount
of energy. More potential energy is
available when there is more water
and when it is at a higher height;

 - Kinetic energy: this is energy of

movement, as in wind or in a water
stream. The faster the stream flows
and the more water it has, the more
energy it can deliver. Similarly, more
wind energy is available at higher
windspeeds, and more of it can be
tapped by bigger windmill rotors;

 -Thermalenergy or heat: this is

indicated by temperature. The higher
the temperature, the more energy is
present in the form of heat. Also, a
larger body contains more heat;

 -Mechanicalenergy, or rotational
energy, also calledshaft power:this
is the energy ofarotating shaft. The
amount of energy available depends
on the flywheel of the shaft, i.e.:. on
the power which makes the shaft
rotate;

 -Electricalenergy: a dynamo or
generator and a battery can deliver
electrical energy. The higher the
voltage and the current, the more
electrical energy is made available.

Energy conversion
"Utilizing" energy always means converting
energy from one form into another. For
instance, in space heating, we utilize
energy, that is, we convert chemical energy
of wood into heat. Or, in lift irrigation, a
diesel engine converts chemical energy of
oil into mechanical energy for powering the
shaft of a pump which, in its turn, converts
shaft power into potential energy of water
(i.e. bringing the water to a higher height).

 "Generating" energy also means converting

energy from one form into another. We can
say that a diesel engine generates energy,
which means that the engine converts
chemical energy of oil into mechanical
energy. Also, a wind turbine generates
energy, which means it converts kinetic
energy from wind into mechanical energy.
And a solar photovoltaic cell generates
energy by converting radiation energy into
electricity.

 The generation of energy, in fact, deals with asourceof

energy, whereas the utilization of energy serves an end-use
of energy. In between, the energy can flow through a
number of conversion steps. The words "generation" and
"utilization" are a little confusing because, in fact, no energy
can be created or destroyed. All we can do is transform or
convert energy from one form into another. In generating
energy, we make energy available from a source, by
converting it into another form. In utilizing energy, we also
convert energy, often from some intermediate form into a
useful form. In all conversions, we find that part of the
energy is lost. This does not mean that it is destroyed, but
rather that it is lost for our purposes, through dissipation in
the form of heat or otherwise

 Energy conversions can take place from any

one form of energy into almost any other form
of energy. (Some conversions have no practical
value.) Which conversion is desired depends
on our purposes. For instance, for power
generation, we convert potential energy from
hydro resources into mechanical energy,
whereas, in water pumping for lift irrigation,
we do the reverse. And, with photovoltaic cells,
we convert radiation energy into electricity,
whereas with light bulbs we do the reverse.

Energy and power

Energy and power are related but totally different concepts. A
tank of petrol contains a certain amount of energy. We can
combust this petrol in a certain time period, that is, we convert
the energy of the petrol into mechanical energy, perhaps to
power a car. Thepoweris the energy produced per unit of time.
The combustion process can be fast or slow. In the case of faster
combustion, more power is produced. Obviously, the tank will be
empty sooner in the case of high power production than in the
case of low power production. If power is energy per time unit,
then energy is power multiplied by time period. For Instance, if
an oxen delivers a certain amount of power, then after a certain
time period it will have delivered a certain amount of energy,
i.e. the power times the time period.

 The same principle applies to all

other energy conversions, whether
for energy generation or for energy
utilization. This implies that we
characterize energy resources in
units of energy (the amount of
energy they contain), and energy
conversion devices in units of power
(the amount of power they can
produce or consume).

Energy sources
The following energy sources can be relevant for rural
areas.
-Biomass.We distinguish between: woody biomass (stems,
branches, shrubs, hedges, twigs), non-woody biomass
(stalks, leaves, grass, etc.), and crop residues (bagasse,
husks, stalks, shells, cobs, etc.). The energy is converted
through combustion (burning), gasification (transformation
into gas) or anaerobic digestion (biogas production).
Combustion and gasification ideally require dry biomass,
whereas anaerobic digestion can very well take wet
biomass. Fuel preparations can include chopping, mixing,
drying, carbonizing (i.e. charcoal making) and briquetting
(i.e. densification of residues of crops and other biomass).

 -Dungfrom animals, and human

excreta. The energy is converted
through direct combustion or through
anaerobic digestion.

 - Animate energy. This is the energy

which can be delivered by human
beings and animals by doing work.

 -Solar radiation,i.e. energy from the sun. We

distinguish between direct beam radiation and
diffuse (reflected) radiation. Direct radiation is only
collected when the collector faces the sun. Diffuse
radiation is less intense, but comes from all
directions, and is also present on a cloudy day.
Solar energy can be converted through thermal
solar devices (generating heat) or through
photovoltaic cells (generating electricity). Direct
beam solar devices (whether thermal or
photovoltaic) would need a tracking mechanism to
have the device continuously facing the sun.

 -Hydro resources,i.e. energy from

water reservoirs and streams. We
distinguish between: lakes with
storage dams, natural heads
(waterfalls), weirs, and run-of-river
systems. Hydro energy can be
converted by waterwheels or hydro
turbines.

 -Wind energy,i.e. energy from wind.

Wind machines can be designed
either for electricity generating or for
water lifting (for irrigation and
drinking water).

 -Fossil fuels,like coal, oil and natural

gas. Unlike the previous energy
sources, the fossil energy sources are
non-renewable.

 -Geothermal energy,that is, the energy

contained in the form of heat in the earth. A
distinction is made between tectonic plates (in
volcanic areas) and geopressed reservoirs (could
be anywhere). Geothermal energy is, strictly
speaking, non-renewable, but the amount of
heat in the earth is so large that for practical
reasons geothermal energy is generally ranked
with the renewables. Geothermal energy can
only be tapped at places where high earth
temperatures come close to the earth's surface.

 These items contains primary energy sources.

These are the energy sources which are present
in our natural environment. Secondary energy
sources, like batteries, are not included here.
We observe that the primary energy sources are
not the ultimate sources of energy. For instance,
animate energy comes from biomass, whereas
biomass energy ultimately comes from the sun.
Apart from geothermal and nuclear energy, all
our so-called primary energy sources have
ultimately got their energy from the sun.

Energy terminology
Energy sources are sometimes
classified according to characteristics
like: renewable, traditional,
commercial, etc. The terminology is
rather ambiguous, as the meaning of
the words often depends on the
context.

 Renewableis generally contrasted

withfossil.Renewable are biomass,
animate, solar, water and wind
energy, as well as geothermal
energy. Fossil energy is contained in
coal, oil and natural gas.

 Traditional energy is often contrasted with nontraditional energy, and also with new energy. However,
what is considered as traditional depends on what one
is used to. In industrialized societies which are used to
fossil fuels, renewable energies like biomass and
animate energy are often called traditional. At the
same time, engineers working on "new" energies like
wind or solar energy often consider fossil fuels as
traditional. Apparently, what people call traditional are
the forms they are actually not used to.
New and renewableenergy sources are often put
together. They exclude fossil and nuclear energy.

 Commercialenergy is contrasted withnoncommercialenergy, and sometimes

withtraditionalenergy. Commercial energy
certainly includes energy from fossil fuels which
have been monetarized, but also some forms of
new and renewable energies which are part of the
cash economy. Biomass and some other sources
of renewable energy (thermal solar energy) are
sometimes considered non-commercial, because
they are thought to be freely available. However,
in many areas, biomass fuels have to be paid for!

Energy flow
Generating and utilizing energy means converting energy from one
form into another. Often, intermediate steps are Implied. The energy
flows through a number of forms, as well as conversion steps,
between the source and the end-use. The costs increase accordingly.
We distinguish between primary, secondary, final and useful energy.
An example is an energy flow which is related to charcoal. Here, the
primary energy form is wood. The wood is converted into charcoal in a
charcoal kiln. Charcoal is the secondary form of energy, and it is
transported to the consumer. What the consumer buys at the market
place is charcoal, and this is called final energy. The consumer
eventually converts the charcoal into heat for cooking. The heat is the
useful energy.
Another example of an energy flow is: primary energy in the form of a
hydro resource, secondary energy in the form of electricity at the
hydro power station, final energy in the form of electricity at a saw
mill, and useful energy in the form of shaft power for sawing.

Energy flow
Primary energyis the energy as it is
available in the natural environment,
i.e. the primary source of energy.
Secondary energyis the energy ready
for transport or transmission.
Final energyis the energy which the
consumer buys or receives.
Useful energyis the energy which is an
input in an end-use application.

Energy units and

dimensions
So far, we have discussed energy in
qualitative terms. In order to
proceed, we must discuss energy
quantitatively. That means, we need
units for measuring quantities of
energy and related concepts. We use
the International system of units (SI
units), which is based on the
dimensions and basic units

dimension

basic unit

symbol

length

meter

mass

kilogram

kg

time

Second

electric current

ampere

temperature

kelvin

 The unit of energy in this unit system

is joule (J), and the unit of power is
watt (W). These and many other
units can be derived from the basic
SI units. The relationship between
some derived SI units and the basic
SI units is represented in the Table

dimension

unit

symbol

area

square meter

volume

cubic meter

speed

meter per second

m/s

acceleration

meter per second

m/s

pressure

pascal

Pa (=N/m)

volume flow

cubic meter per second

m /s

mass flow

kilogram per second

kg/s

density

kilogram per cubic meter

kg/m

force

newton (*)

N(=kg.m/s)

energy

joule (**)

J(=N.m)

power

watt

W (=J/s)

energy flux

watt per square meter

W/m

calorific value

joule per kilogram

J/kg

specific heat

joule per kilogram kelvin

J/kg.K

voltage

volt

V (=W/A)

Non-SI unit for energy

symbol

equivalence in SI-units

erg

erg

10-7 J

foot pound force

ft.lbf

1.356 J

calorie

cal

4.187 J

kilogramforce meter

kgf.m

9.8 J

British thermal unit

Btu

1.055 x 103 J

horsepower hour (metric)

hp.hr

2.646 x 106 J

horsepower hour (GB)

hp.hr

2.686 x 106 J

kilowatt hour

kWh

3.60 x 106 J

barrel oil equivalent

b.o.e.

6.119 x 109 J

ton wood equivalent

9.83 x 109 J

ton coal equivalent

tee

29.31 x 109 J

ton oil equivalent

toe

41.87 x 109 J

quad (PBtu)

1.055 x 1018 J

tera watt year

TWy

31.5 x 1018 J

Non-SI unit for power

symbol

equivalence in SI-Units

foot pound per hour

ft.lb/h

0.377 x 10-3 W

calorie per minute

cal/min

69.8 x 10-3 W

British thermal unit per hour

Btu/h

0.293 W

British thermal unit per second

Btu/s

1.06 x 103 W

kilocalorie per hour

kcal/h

1.163 W

foot poundforce per second

ft.lbf/s

1.356 W

calorie per second

cal/s

4.19 W

kilogramforce meter per second

kgf.m/s

9.8 W

horsepower (metric)

hp

735.49 W

horsepower (GB)

hp

746 W

 The powers of ten are often

abbreviated by writing prefixes
before the unit. For instance, the
symbol G stands for giga, which
means 10 to the power 9, i.e. a
billion. One billion W is then written
as 1 GW (one giga Watt). Common
prefixes are given

prefix

symbol

multiplier

exa

1018

peta

1015

tera

1012

giga

109 (= 1,000,000,000)

mega

106 (= million)

kilo

103 (= thousand)

hecto

102 (= hundred)

deca

da

101 (= ten)

deci

10-1 (= a tenth)

centi

10 (= a hundredth)

milli

10-3 etc....

micro

10-6

nano

10-9

pico

10-12

femto

10-15

atto

10-18

Magnitudes of energy forms

Now we have Introduced units for
measuring energy, we can make
quantitative comparisons and
calculations.

The examples are all equivalent to about 100 kJ;

- radiation from the sun on the roof of a house (of ca. 40 m) in 2.5 s
- energy released in burning 3.5 g coal or 2.9 g petrol; or the energy stored in
1/4 slice of bread
- a large object (1,000 kg) at a height of 10 m
- energy produced by a windmill of 3 m diameter in a wind speed of 5 m/s (a
breeze) during 20 minutes; or the energy stored in the mass of a car (1,000
kg) moving at 50 km/h heat emanated in cooling three cups of coffee (0.4 kg)
from 80C to 20 C; or the energy needed to melt 0.3 kg ice
- an iron flywheel of 0.6 m diameter and 70 mm thick, rotating at 1,500
revolutions per second
- energy consumed by a 100 W electric light bulb in 17 minutes

Energy losses and efficiency

Energy conversions always imply energy
losses. This leads us to the concept of
efficiency, as follows. A quantity of energy
in a certain form is put into a machine or
device, for conversion into another form of
energy. The output energy in the desired
form is only a part of the Input energy. The
balance is the energy loss (usually in the
form of diffused heat). It means the
converter has less than 100% efficiency.

Energy losses and efficiency

The efficiency of an energy converter
is now defined as the quantity of
energy in the desired form (the
output energy) divided by the
quantity of energy put in for
conversion (the input energy). The
efficiency is usually expressed by the
Greek letterh.

Converter

form of input energy

form of output energy

efficiency %

petrol engine

chemical

mechanical

20 - 25

diesel engine

chemical

mechanical

30 - 45

electric motor

electrical

mechanical

80 - 95

boiler & turbine

thermal

mechanical

7-40

hydraulic pump

mechanical

potential

40 - 80

hydro turbine

potential

mechanical

70 - 99

hydro turbine

kinetic

mechanical

30 - 70

mechanical

electrical

80 - 95

battery

chemical

electrical

80 - 90

solar cell

radiation

electrical

8-15

solar collector

radiation

thermal

25 - 65

electric lamp

electrical

light

ca. 5

waterpump

mechanical

potential

ca. 60

water heater

electrical

thermal

90 - 92

gas stove

chemical

thermal

24 - 30

generator

 In some of these converters, intermediate forms of

energy occur between the form of the input energy and
the form of the output energy. For instance, with diesel
engines, the intermediate form is thermal energy.
When thermal energy is Involved either as the input or
as an intermediate form, the efficiency is generally low.
The energy converter can be a device, or a process, or a
whole system. An example of the efficiency of an energy
conversion system is given in Table 6. The overall
efficiency equals the product of the efficiencies of the
various components of the system. We see that it can
be very low indeed.

Examples of calculations of energy

conversions
How much heat is produced by a
human body?
A man doing no or very little physical
work needs about 2,000 kcal (or less)
of energy in his daily food. The body
converts this energy almost entirely
into heat.
1 day = 24 x 60 x 60 s = 86,400 s 1
cal = 4.2 J

 It was said that two teaspoons of

diesel oil are equivalent to the work
done by a man in a day. Can that be
correct?
Assume that the power which can be
delivered by a man in a day's work is
60 W and that he can do that for 4
hours per day. So, per day, he delivers:
60 W x 4 h = 240 Wh = 240 x 3,600
Ws = 860 kWs = 860 kJ (1)