EXPERIME

NTAL
RESEARCH
DESIGN
Mrs. Asra Tabassum

Experimental Research

Variable
a concept (e.g., intelligence, height, aptitude)
that can assume any one of a range of values
Independent variable - an activity of
characteristic believed to make a difference with
respect to some behavior
Ex - experimental variable, active variable,
cause, treatment
Dependent variable - the change or difference
occurring a result of the independent variable
Ex- Assigned variable, effect, outcome, posttest

What is an Experiment?
Research method in which
conditions are controlled
so that 1 or more independent variables
can be manipulated to test a hypothesis
about a dependent variable.

Allows
evaluation of causal relationships among
variables
while all other variables are eliminated or
controlled.

 Experimental research is
defined as OBSERVATIONS
UNDER CONTROLLED
CONDITIONS.
In experimental design the
researcher is active agent
rather than a passive observer.

 Experimental designs are

concerned with examination
of the effect of an
independent variable on
dependent variable, where
the independent variable is
manipulated through
treatment or intervention(s).

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS
A true experimental design
consists of three important
characteristics. They are as
follows:
1. MANIPULATION.
2. CONTROL.
3. RANDOMIZATION.

MANIPULATION
Manipulation refers to
conscious control of the
independent variable by the
researcher through
treatment or intervention to
observe
its effect on
the
INDEPENDENT
MEDICATIO
dependent
variable.
VARIABLE
N
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE

PAIN LEVEL

CONTROL
Control refers to the use of control
group and controlling the effects of
extraneous variables on the
dependent variable in which the
researcher is interested.
The subjects in the control and
experimental groups are similar in
number & characteristics, but the
subjects in the control group do not
receive experimental treatment or any
intervention.

 A comparison of the experimental

group is made with the control
group to observe the effect of the
treatment or intervention.
The control of effects of extraneous
variables on the dependent
variable can be ensured by
adopting one of the following
measures : Matching,
counterbalancing, Homogeneity by
statistical test.

MATCHING
Is a conscious matching" of the
subject characteristics in both the
groups.
It is a weak but a common method of
control over the extraneous variables.
In matching the researcher identifies
one or more extraneous variables to be
controlled which are supposed to have
effect on dependent variable.

 As the subjects are recruited for

one of the treatment groups, the
researcher tries to find subjects
for the other group (similar to
the subjects of the first group
based on the specific matching
variable).
For example if age and gender
are the matching variables of
interest in a two group study (if
40 yrs old man is recruited for

RANDOMIZATION
Means that every subject has
an equal chance of being
assigned to experimental or
control group.
This is called random
assignment of subjects.
The process involves random

 Through random assignment

chances of systemic bias is
eliminated.
Randomization is used in true
experimental designs to
minimize the threats of internal
validity of the study and
eliminates the effects of
extraneous variables on the
dependent variables.

METHODS OF
RANDOMIZATION
Random assignment of study
subjects may be done with
simple flip of a coin for each
subject. If coin lands on its
head, subjects are
assigned to first group &
with tail the subjects are
assigned to the second

 Another methods is to write

the names of the subjects on
slips of paper and put the slips
into a bowl and then drew lots.
The first designated numbers
of subjects are placed in one
group and the rest are
assigned under another group.

 A random table may be used

to facilitate the
randomization process. In
this method blindfolds the
subjects to chose a number
from a table of numbers
horizontally (row) or
vertically (column), till a
requisite number is reached
for both the experimental &
control group.

Simple Random Sample

Every subset of a specified size n
from the population has an equal
chance of being selected

Stratified Random Sample

The population is divided into two or
more groups called strata, according
to some criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age, or income,
and subsamples are randomly
selected from each strata.

Cluster Sample
The population is divided into
subgroups (clusters) like families. A
simple random sample is taken of the
subgroups and then all members of
the cluster selected are surveyed.

Systematic Sample
Every kth member ( for example:
every 10th person) is selected from a
list of all population members.

Uniqueness of experimental
research design

Experimental Research is unique in two

important respects:
1)
2)

Only type of research that attempts to

influence a particular variable
Best type of research for testing hypotheses
about cause-and-effect relationships

Experimental Research looks at the

following variables:

Independent variable (treatment)

Dependent variable (outcome)

Major Characteristics of
Experimental Research
The researcher manipulates the independent
variable.
They decide the nature and the extent of the
treatment.
After the treatment has been administered,
researchers observe or measure the groups
receiving the treatments to see if they differ.
Experimental research enables researchers to
go beyond description and prediction, and
attempt to determine what caused effects.

Essential Characteristics of
Experimental Research
Comparison of Groups:

The experimental group receives a treatment of some

sort while the control group receives no treatment.
Enables the researcher to determine whether the
treatment has had an effect or whether one treatment is
more effective than another.

Manipulation of the Independent Variable:

The researcher deliberately and directly determines what

forms the independent variable will take and which group
will get which form.

Essential Characteristics
of Experimental Research
Randomization

Random assignment is similar but not identical to random

selection.
Random assignment means that every individual who is
participating in the experiment has an equal chance of
being assigned to any of the experimental or control groups.
Random selection means that every member of a
population has an equal chance of being selected to be a
member of the sample.
Three things occur with random assignments of subjects:
1) It takes place before the experiment begins
2) Process of assigning the groups takes place
3) Groups should be equivalent

Different types of experimental research can be conducted depending

on the nature of subjects and the instruments, and the way data are
collected and analyzed.
- Will there be a control group?
- How many subjects will there be?
- Will the subjects be randomly selected?
- Will each group be pretested?
- How will the obtained data be analyzed?
- What factors may affect the internal validity?
- What factors may affect the external validity

Steps in conducting
experimental research
Decide if an experiment addresses the research
problem
Form hypotheses to test cause-effect relationships
Select an experimental treatment and introduce it
Identify study participants choose a type of
experimental design
Conduct the experiment
Organize and analyze the data
Develop an experimental research report

Types of Designs
The basic structure of a research
study . . . particularly relevant to
experimental research
Types of experimental designs (Campbell
& Stanley, 1963)

Pre-experimental
Quasi-experimental
True experimental

Types of
Experimental
Research

Pretest/posttest control group

design
Posttest only control group design
Solomon four group design
True-Experimental
Design

Single variable
designs
Factorial
designs

QuasiExperimental
design
PreExperimental
Design

Time series
Multiple time series
One-short case study
One-group, pretest/posttest
Static group comparison

Statistical
Design

Randomised
blocks
Latin square
Factorial

True Experimental
group Design
1. True Experimental Designs
Experimental designs are considered true experiments when they employ
randomization in the selection of their samples and control for extraneous
influences of variation on the dependent variable. The three designs we will
consider in this section are the best choices for an experimental
dissertation. These are the pretest-posttest
control group design, the Posttest Only Control Group design, and the Solomon
Four
Advantages of the true-experimental design include:
Group design.
Greater internal validity
Causal claims can be investigated
Disadvantages:
Less external validity (not like real world conditions)
Not very practical

Quasi-experimental
Design

2. Quasi-Experimental design
Without proper randomization
Lack of rigorous statistical scrutiny

Some advantages of the quasi-experimental design include:

Greater external validity (more like real world conditions)
Much more feasible given time and logistical constraints
Disadvantage:
Not as many variables controlled (less causal claims)

Pre-experimental
Design

3. Pre-Experimental
Design

Lacking in several areas of the true-experimental criteria.

No random selection in most of the cases.
Employment of just single group that receives treatment, no control group.

The advantages are:

Very practical
Set the stage for further research
Disadvantages:
Lower validity

Statistical Design

4. Statistical Design

Symbolism for Diagramming

Experimental Designs

exposure of a group to an experimental treatment

observation or measurement of the dependent vari
If multiple observations or measurements
are taken,
subscripts indicate temporal order I.e.,
R = random assignment of test units;
O1, O2, etc.
individuals selected as subjects for the
experiment
are randomly assigned to the
experimental groups

True Experimental Design

The posttest only

control group design.

The pretest posttest

control group design.

The Solomon four

group control design.

Quasi-experimental
Design

Nonequivalent
Control Group Design

Time Series

Multiple Time Series

Pre-experimental Design

The one-shot
case study

One group Pretest

Posttest study

The static group

comparison study

One-Shot Design
A.K.A. after-only design
A single measure is recorded after the
treatment is administered
Study lacks any comparison or control of
extraneous influences
No measure of test units not exposed to
the experimental treatment
May be the only viable choice in taste tests
Diagrammed as: X O1

One-Group Pretest-Posttest
Design
Subjects in the experimental group are
measured before and after the treatment is
administered.
No control group
Offers comparison of the same individuals
before and after the treatment (e.g., training)
If time between 1st & 2nd measurements is
extended, may suffer maturation
Can also suffer from history, mortality, and
testing effects
Diagrammed as O1 X O2

Static
Group
Design
A.K.A., after-only design with control

group
Experimental group is measured after being
exposed to the experimental treatment
Control group is measured without having
been exposed to the experimental treatment
No pre-measure is taken
Major weakness is lack of assurance that the
groups were equal on variables of interest
prior to the treatment
Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X O1
Control Group

O2

Pretest-Posttest Control Group

Design
A.K.A., Before-After with Control
True experimental design
Experimental group tested before and after
treatment exposure
Control group tested at same two times
without exposure to experimental treatment
Includes random assignment to groups
Effect of all extraneous variables assumed
to be the same on both groups
Do run the risk of a testing effect

Pretest-Posttest Control Group

Design
Diagrammed as
O1 X O2
Experimental Group:
R
RO3 O4
Control Group:
Effect of the experimental treatment equals
(O2 O1) -- (O4 O3)
Example
20% brand awareness among subjects
before an advertising treatment
35% in experimental group & 22% in
control group after the treatment
Treatment effect equals (0.35 0.20)
(0.22 0.20) = 13%

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

A.K.A., After-Only with Control
True experimental design
Experimental group tested after treatment
exposure
Control group tested at same time without
exposure to experimental treatment
Includes random assignment to groups
Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be
the same on both groups
Do not run the risk of a testing effect
Use in situations when cannot pretest

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

Diagrammed as
R
Experimental Group:
R
Control Group:

X O1
O2

Effect of the experimental treatment equals

(O2 O1)
Example
Assume you manufacture an athletes foot
remedy
Want to demonstrate your product is
better than the competition
Cant really pretest the effectiveness of
the remedy

Solomon Four-Group Design

True experimental design
Combines pretest-posttest with
control group design and the
posttest-only with control group
design
Provides means for controlling the
interactive testing effect and other
sources of extraneous variation
Does include random assignment

Solomon Four-Group Design

Diagrammed as
O1 X O2
Experimental GroupR1:
Control Group 1: R O3 O4
R
X O5
Experimental Group 2:
R
O6
Control Group 2:

Effect of independent variable (O2 O4) &

(O5 O6)
Effect of pretesting (O4 O6)
Effect of pretesting & measuring (O2 O5)
Effect of random assignment (O1 O3)

Quasi-Experimental Designs
More realistic than true experiments
Researchers lacks full control over the
scheduling of experimental treatments
or
They are unable to randomize
Includes
Time Series Design
Multiple Time Series Design
Same as Time Series Design except that a
control group is added

Time Series Design

Involves periodic measurements on the
dependent variable for a group of test
units
After multiple measurements,
experimental treatment is
administered (or occurs naturally)
After the treatment, periodic
measurements are continued in order
to determine the treatment effect
Diagrammed as:
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

Statistical Designs
Multiple experiments are conducted
simultaneously to permit extraneous
variables to be statistically controlled
and
Effects of multiple independent
variables to be measured
Advantages
Can measure the effects of more than one
independent variable
Can statistically control specific
extraneous variables
Economical designs can be formulated
when each subject is measured more than

Completely Randomized Design

Involves randomly assigning
treatments to group members
Allows control over all extraneous
treatments while manipulating the
treatment variable
Simple to administer, but should NOT be
used unless test members are similar, and
they are also alike regarding a particular
extraneous variable
Different forms of the independent
variable are called levels.

Completely Randomized Design

Example
Grocery store chain trying to motivate
consumers to shop in their stores
3 possible sales promotional efforts
X1 = offer discount of 5% off total
shopping bill
X2 = offer taste sample of selected
foods
X3 = control group, no sales

Completely Randomized Design

Example
SALES PROMOTION TECHNIQUE
LEVELS

STORES

5% discount

Taste samples

No sales
promotion

Sales, store 3

Sales, store 5

Sales, store 9

Sales, store 1

Sales, store 8

Sales, store 7

Sales, store 6

Sales, store 4

Sales, store 2

Average sales

Average sales

Average sales

Randomized Block Design

Randomly assigns treatments to
experimental & control groups
Test units broken into similar blocks (or
groups) according to an extraneous
variable
I.e., location, age, gender, income,
education, etc.

Particularly useful when small sample

sizes are necessary

Randomized Design
Example
Grocery store chain trying to motivate
consumers to shop in their stores
3 possible sales promotional efforts
X1 = offer discount of 5% off total
shopping bill
X2 = offer taste sample of selected
foods
X3 = control group, no sales
promotional effort applied

Latin Square Design

Allows control or elimination of the
effect of two extraneous variables
Systematically blocks in 2 directions by
grouping test units according to 2
extraneous variables
Includes random assignment of
treatments to each cell in the design
Used for comparing t treatment levels
in t rows and t columns
I.e., if we have 3 treatment levels, we
must have 3 rows and 3 columns

Latin Square Design

Extraneous Variable 2

Extraneous
Variable 1

where A, B, & C are all treatments

Latin Square Design

Example
PER CAPITA INCOME

TIME IN
OPERATION

High

Medium

Low

< 5 years

X1

X2

X3

5 10 years

X2

X3

X1

> 10 years

X3

X1

X2

Factorial Design
Used to examine the effects that the
manipulation of at least 2 independent
variables (simultaneously at different
levels) has upon the dependent
variable
The impact that each independent
variable has on the dependent variable
is referred to as the main effect
Dependent variable may also be
impacted by the interaction of the
independent variables. This is called

Factorial Design Example

Grocery store chain wants to use 12 of its
stores to examine whether sales would
change at 3 different hours of operation and
2 different types of sales promotions
Dependent variable is change in sales
Independent variables

Store open 6 am to 6 pm
Store open 6 am to midnight
Store open 24 hours/day
Sales promotion: samples for a free gift
Sales promotion: food samples

Called a 3 x 2 factorial design

Need 6 experimental groups (3 x 2 = 6)

Factorial Design Example

HOURS OF OPERATION

SALES
PROMOTION
Gift stamps

Food samples

6 am 6 pm

5 am midnight

24 hours

Test Marketing
Controlled experiment conducted on a small
segment of the target market
Major objectives
Determine how well products will be accepted in the
marketplace
Determine how changes in marketing mix will likely
affect product success

Major reason for test marketing is risk reduction

Lose $ 1 million in test market or $ 50 million on
product failure?

Problems
Expense
Time
Competitors can disrupt

Factors to Consider

Population size
Demographic composition
Lifestyle considerations
Competitive situation
Media coverage & efficiency
Media isolation
Self-contained trading area
Overused test markets
Loss of secrecy

TYPES OF TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS

1. POST TEST ONLY DESIGN.

2. PRETEST-POST-TEST-ONLY
DESIGN.
3. SOLOMOM FOUR GROUP
DESIGN.
4. FACTORIAL DESIGN.
5. RANDOMIZED BLOCK
DESIGN.

POST TEST ONLY

CONTROL
DESIGN
Is composed of two randomly
assigned group - experimental
& control groups.
Both the groups are not tested
previous to the introduction of
an intervention.
While treatment is implemented

 This design is helpful in

situations where it is not
possible to pre teat the
subjects.
E.g., A study on educational
intervention related to
contraception among
couples.

POST TEST ONLY CONTROL DESIGN

EXP
GROUP

TREATME
NT

POST
TEST

RANDOM
ASSIGNME
NT
CONTR
OL GRP

POST
TEST

PRETEST-POST-TEST-ONLY
DEIGN
In this design, subjects are
randomly assigned to either the
experimental or control group.
The effect of the dependent
variable on both the groups is
seen before the treatment (pre
test).

 Following this the treatment is

carried out on experimental
group only.
After treatment observation of
dependent variable is made on
both the groups to examine
the effect of the manipulation
of independent variable on
dependent variable.

PRETEST POST TEST ONLY DESIGN

EXP
GROUP

PRE
TES
T

TREATME
NT

POST
TEST

RANDOM
ASSIGNME
NT

CONTROL
GRP

PRE
TES
T

POST
TEST

SOLOMON FOUR GROUP

DESIGN

There are two

experimental and two
control group.(control
group - I & II) (Exp groupI &II).

Initially the researcher

randomly assigns subjects
to the four groups.

 Out of four groups, only exp grp I &

control grp I receives the pre test
followed by the treatment to the
experimental grp I & II.
Finally all the four groups receive post
test, where the effects of the
dependent variables of the study are
observed and comparison is made of
the four groups to assess the effect of
independent variable (experimental
variable) on the dependent variable.

 The experimental group II

is observed at one
occasion.
To estimate the amount of
change in experimental &
control group II the
average test scores of
experimental & control

 The solomon four group design is

considered to be most prestigious
experimental research design, because
it minimizes the threat to internal and
external validity.
The test effectively presents the
reactive effects of the pre test.
Any difference between the
experimental and control group can be
more confidently attributed to the
experimental treatment.

 The disadvantage of this

design is that it requires a
large sample and statistical
analysis, and therefore not
commonly used in health
care researches.

SOLOMON FOUR GROUP

DESIGN
Exp
grp I

RANDOM
ASSIGNMENT

Cont
grp I
Exp
grp II
Cont
grp II

Pre
test

Treatmen
t

Post
test
Pos
t
test

Pre
test
Treatme
nt

Pos
t
tes
t
Pos
t
test

FACTORIAL DESIGN
Here the researcher manipulates
two or more independent variables
simultaneously to observe their
effects on the dependent variables.
This design is particularly useful
when there are more than two
independent variables to be tested.

 E.g., researcher wants to test the

efficacy of two different
medication.
The design facilitates the testing
of several hypotheses at a single
time.
Typically factorial design
incorporates 2x2 or 2x3 factorial.
(it can be any combination)

 The first number (alpha - A)

refers to the independent
variables or the types of
experimental treatments and
the second number (beta -B)
refers to the level or
frequency of the treatment.

FACTORIAL DESIGN
FREQUENCY PROTOCOLS PROTOCOLS
OF
OF
OF
TREATMENT TREATMENT TREATMENT

4 hourly
(B1)
6 hourly
(B2)

ALPHA (I)
(DRUG I)

BETA (II)
(DRUG II)

A1 B1

A2 B1

A1 B2

A2 B2

RANDOMIZED BLOCK
DESIGN

Randomized block design is

used when the researcher
desires to bring homogeneity
among selected groups.
This is a simple method to
reduce the variability among
the treatment groups by a
more homogenous

 For example if the researcher wants to

test the efficacy of three different
medications in reducing hypertension,
to ensure homogeneity among
subjects under treatment, researcher
randomly places the subjects in
homogenous groups (blocks).
like patients with hypertension,
diabetic patients with hypertension
and hypertensive patients with heart
diseases.

The design looks similar to

that of factorial design in
structure, but out of two
factors one factor is not
experimentally
manipulated.

RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN

TYPE OF
HYPERTENS
IVE DRUG

BLOCKS

BLOCKS

PATIRNT
DIABETIC
WITH
PATIENT
HYPERTENS
WITH
ION (I)
HYPERTENS
ION (II)

A
B
C

A,1
B,1
C,1

A, I
B, I
C, I

BLOCKS

PATIENT
WITH
HEART
DISEASE
AND
HYPERTENS
ION (III)
A, III
B, II
C, III

CROSS OVER DESIGN

In cross over design the
study subjects are
exposed to more than one
treatment.
It is also known as repeat
measure design.

 This design is more efficient in

establishing the highest possible
similarity among subjects exposed to
different conditions where groups
compared obviously have equal
distribution of characteristics.
Some times this design is not effective
because, when subjects are exposed to
two different conditions, their responses
of the second condition may be
influenced by their experience in the
first condition.

CROSS OVER DESIGN

GROUPS

TREATMEN TREATMEN
T
T
PROTOCOL PROTOCOL

GROUP I

TREATMEN TREATMEN
TI
T II
TREATMEN TREATMEN
T II
TI

GROUP II

ADVANTAGES OF TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Most powerful design to establish
the causal relationship between
independent and dependent
variable.
Since the study is conducted
under controlled environment, it
can yield a greater degree of
purity in observation.

 Conditions that are not found

in natural setting can be
created in experimental
setting in a short period of
time that may take years to
naturally occur (therefore
very useful in genetic
studies).
Because the experiment is
carried out in experimental

DISADVANTAGES OF
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
Most often the results of
experimental designs cannot
be replicated in studies
conducted on humans due to
ethical problems.

Many of the human variables

neither have valid
measurable criteria nor

 In experimental studies conducted

in natural settings like a hospital or
community, it is not possible to
impose control over extraneous
variables.
Experiments are often more
impractical when the effect of
independent variable may require a
lengthy period of time before it can
emerge as a response on the
criterion measures.

 It is very difficult to obtain permission

from the participants.
Because the size of the sample is kept
small especially studies involving
humans, the representativeness of the
findings of such study is questionable.
Though theoretically experimental
designs can yields a greater insights , yet
practically many a times they are not
possible in human studies as humans &
their parameters are complex.

Different types of experimental research can be conducted depending

on the nature of subjects and the instruments, and the way data are
collected and analyzed.
- Will there be a control group?
- How many subjects will there be?
- Will the subjects be randomly selected?
- Will each group be pretested?
- How will the obtained data be analyzed?
- What factors may affect the internal validity?
- What factors may affect the external validity

Types of
Experimental
Research

Pretest/posttest control group

design
Posttest only control group design
Solomon four group design

Single variable
designs
Factorial
designs

TrueExperimental
Design
QuasiExperimental
design
Pre-Experimental
Design

Time series
Multiple time series
One-short case study
One-group, pretest/posttest
Static group comparison

Statistical Design

Randomised
blocks
Latin square
Factorial

True Experimental
group Design
True Experimental Designs
Experimental designs are considered true experiments when they employ
randomization in the selection of their samples and control for extraneous
influences of variation on the dependent variable. The three designs we will
consider in this section are the best choices for an experimental
dissertation. These are the pretest-posttest
control group design, the Posttest Only Control Group design, and the Solomon
FourAdvantages of the true-experimental design include:
Greater
internal validity
Group
design.
Causal claims can be investigated
Disadvantages:
Less external validity (not like real world conditions)
Not very practical

Quasi-experimental
Design

Without proper randomization

Lack of rigorous statistical scrutiny

Some advantages of the quasi-experimental design include:

Greater external validity (more like real world conditions)
Much more feasible given time and logistical constraints
Disadvantage:
Not as many variables controlled (less causal claims)

Pre-experimental
Design
Lacking in several areas of the true-experimental criteria.
No random selection in most of the cases.
Employment of just single group that receives treatment, no control group.

The advantages are:

Very practical
Set the stage for further research
Disadvantages:
Lower validity

True Experimental Design

The posttest only

control group design.

The pretest posttest

control group design.

The Solomon four

group control design.

Quasi-experimental
Design

Nonequivalent
Control Group Design

Time Series

Multiple Time Series

Pre-experimental Design

The one-shot
case study

One group Pretest

Posttest study

The static group

comparison study

If there is only one independent variable that can

be manipulated, then a single-variable design is
used. If there are two or more independent
variables, and at least one can be manipulated,
then a factorial design should be chosen.

Single-variable designs.
These studies are classified under three main
headings depending on the degree of control
maintained on other variables:
1. Pre-experimental designs (low degree of
control)
2. True experimental designs (high degree of
control)
3. Quasi-experimental designs (medium
degree of control)

Pre-experimental designs
Classified depending on whether there is an
involvement of one or two groups, and whether the
groups are posttested only, or both are pretested
and posttested:
-One-shot case studies
-One-group pretest-posttest design:
-Static-group comparison design:

One-shot case studies:

One group is exposed to the treatment, and only a posttest
is given to observe or measure the effect of the treatment
on the dependent variable within the experimental group.
Since it is applied on a single group, there is no control
group involved in this design.
First of all, the chosen group is exposed to the treatment ,
and then it is tested only once for the purpose of measuring
the degree of change on the dependent variable after the
treatment.

One-group pretest-posttest design:

One group is pretested and exposed to the treatment, and then
posttested. This is called a one-group pretest-posttest design
because the two tests are administered to the same group.
The first one is administered at the beginning of the treatment and
the second one at the end.

Static-group comparison
design
At least two groups are involved. After one group receives
the treatment, all groups are posttested.
This design has better control over most of the variables

Advantages of pretest design

Equivalency of groups
Can measure extent of change
Determine inclusion
Assess reasons for and effects of
mortality
Disadvantages of pretest design
Time-consuming
Sensitization to pre-test

True experimental designs

Have the highest level of control among the three singlevariable experimental designs because the subjects within
the groups are randomly assigned for each group.
When subjects are randomly assigned, there is higher
control of the internal validity as well as the external
validity. Moreover, there is always a control group to
compare the results of the subjects in the experiment with
other subjects of similar status that have not been
exposed to the treatment.

True experimental research

may be designed with or without a pretest on at least two
groups of randomly assigned subjects. The classification of true
experimental designs is made accordingly :
1. The posttest-only control group design
2 .The pretest-posttest control group design
3. Solomon four-group design

Posttest Only Control Group

Subjects are randomly selected and assigned to two
groups. Due to randomization, the two groups are
statistically equal. No pretest is given. One group receives
the Treatment
R
X O1
R
O2
Example. Third graders are randomly assigned to
two groups. Then one group
receives a special study on the life of Iqball. Both are
tested on their knowledge of Iqball at the conclusion of the
study.
Analysis. The difference between group means (O1
and O2) can be computed by an independent groups ttest.

Pretest-Posttest Control Group

Two randomly selected groups are measured before
(O1 and O3) and after (O2 and
O4) one of the groups receives a treatment (X).
R O1
X O2
R
O3
O4
Example. Third graders are randomly
assigned to two groups and tested for
knowledge of Arithmetic. Then one group gets a
special study on Arithmetic. Both are then tested
again.

Analysis. The t-test for independent samples

(Chapter 20) can be used to determine if there is
a significant difference between the average scores
of the groups (O2 and O4). You can also compute gain
scores (O2 - O1 and O4 - O3) and test the significance
of the average gain scores with the matched samples
t-test.
This designs only weakness is pre-test
sensitization and the possible interaction
between pretest and treatment.

Solomon four-group design

Takes the effect of pretest and posttest
sensitivization into consideration.
It is the combination of pretest-posttest control
group (G1 and G2) and posttest only control group
(G3 and G4) designs. In this case, subjects are
randomly selected and placed into four groups;

Example. Third graders are randomly assigned to 1 of 4

groups. The knowledge of language is measured in groups
1 and 2. Groups 1 and 3 are given a special study on the
language learning. When the special study is over, all four groups
are tested.
Analysis. One-way ANOVA can be used to test the
differences in the four posttest mean scores (O2, O4, O5,
O6). The effects of the pretest can be analyzed by applying a ttest to the means of O4 (pretest but no treatment) and O6
(neither pretest or treatment). The effects of the treatment can
be analyzed by applying a t-test to the means of O5 (treatment
but no pretest) and O6 (neither pretest or treatment). Subject
maturation can be analyzed by comparing the combined means
of O1 and O3 against O6.

- the first and the second groups are retested;

- the first and the third groups are exposed to the
treatment, and the second and the fourth groups
are taken as control groups;
- all four groups are posttested.
This design provides the best result but it requires a
large sample so that enough subjects could be
assigned to four groups.
When the sample is large, administering the tests
becomes difficult, time and energy consuming.

Quasi-experimental Designs
The term quasi- (pronounced kwahz-eye) means almost, near,
partial, pseudo, or somewhat. Quasi-experimental designs are
used when true experiments cannot be done. A common
problem in educational research is the unwillingness of
educational administrators to allow the random selection of
students out of classes for experimental samples. Without
randomization, there are no true experiments. So, several
designs have been developed for these situations that are
almost true experiments,
or quasi-experimental designs.
Well look at three:
the time series,
the nonequivalent control group design,
and the counterbalanced design.

Time Series
Establish a baseline measure of subjects by administering a
series of tests over time (O1 through O4 in this case).
Expose the group to the treatment and then measure the
subjects with another series of tests (e.g., O5 through O8).
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
Comments. Since there is no control group, one
cannot determine the effects of
history on the test scores.
Instrumentation may also be a problem (Are the tests
equivalent?)
the reactive effects of repeated testing of subjects is a
source of external invalidity.

Nonequivalent Control Group Design

Subjects are tested in existing or intact groups rather
than being randomly selected. The dotted line in the
diagram represents non-equivalent groups. Both groups
are measured before and after treatment. Only one group
receives the treatment.
O1
X
O2
--------------------O3
O4
Comments. This design should be used only when
random assignment is impossible.
It does not control for
selection-maturation interaction
statistical regression.
pretest sensitization.

Counterbalanced Design
Subjects are not randomly selected, but are used in intact
groups. Group 1 receives treatment 1 and test 1. Then at
a later time, they receive treatment 2 and test 2. Group 2
receives treatment 2 first and then treatment one.
Time
12
Group1 X1 O X2 O
Group2 X2 O X1 O
Example. Two third grade classes receive two
special studies on language: one in classroom and
the other on a computer. Class 1 does the classroom work
first, followed by the computer; class 2 does the
computer work first. Both groups are tested after both
treatments.

Analysis. Use the Latin Squares

analysis (beyond the scope of
this text).
Comments. Since randomization
is not used in this design,
selection-maturation
interaction may be a problem.
Multiple treatment effect is a possible
source of external
invalidity.

Thank You

Experimental designs
Completely randomized design,
Randomized block design, Latin
square design , other designs.
D. Kavitha
MSc(N); MSc(Psy);BSAM; DHHM Ph.D
Scholar

Experimental Research

Research design

It is master plan specifying the

methods and procedures for
following for collecting and analyzing
the needed information in a research
study

Experimental research design

the researcher selects participants

and divides them into two or more
groups having similar characteristics
and, then, applies the treatment(s) to
the groups and measures the effects
upon the groups

Uniqueness of experimental
research design

Experimental Research is unique in two

important respects:
1)
2)

Only type of research that attempts to

influence a particular variable
Best type of research for testing hypotheses
about cause-and-effect relationships

Experimental Research looks at the

following variables:

Independent variable (treatment)

Dependent variable (outcome)

Major Characteristics of
Experimental Research
The researcher manipulates the independent
variable.
They decide the nature and the extent of the
treatment.
After the treatment has been administered,
researchers observe or measure the groups
receiving the treatments to see if they differ.
Experimental research enables researchers to
go beyond description and prediction, and
attempt to determine what caused effects.

Essential Characteristics of
Experimental Research
Comparison of Groups:

The experimental group receives a treatment of some

sort while the control group receives no treatment.
Enables the researcher to determine whether the
treatment has had an effect or whether one treatment is
more effective than another.

Manipulation of the Independent Variable:

The researcher deliberately and directly determines what

forms the independent variable will take and which group
will get which form.

Essential Characteristics
of Experimental Research
Randomization

Random assignment is similar but not identical to random

selection.
Random assignment means that every individual who is
participating in the experiment has an equal chance of
being assigned to any of the experimental or control groups.
Random selection means that every member of a
population has an equal chance of being selected to be a
member of the sample.
Three things occur with random assignments of subjects:
1) It takes place before the experiment begins
2) Process of assigning the groups takes place
3) Groups should be equivalent

Simple Random Sample

Every subset of a specified size n
from the population has an equal
chance of being selected

Stratified Random Sample

The population is divided into two or
more groups called strata, according
to some criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age, or income,
and subsamples are randomly
selected from each strata.

Cluster Sample
The population is divided into
subgroups (clusters) like families. A
simple random sample is taken of the
subgroups and then all members of
the cluster selected are surveyed.

Systematic Sample
Every kth member ( for example:
every 10th person) is selected from a
list of all population members.

Types of Designs
The basic structure of a research
study . . . particularly relevant to
experimental research
Types of experimental designs (Campbell
& Stanley, 1963)

Pre-experimental
Quasi-experimental
True experimental

Preexperimental
design

Quasi
experimental
design

True
experimental
design

One shot case

design
One group pretestposttest design
FEATURES
Manipulation of
independent
variables
Limited control over
the extraneous
variables
No randomization
and control group

Non randomized
block design
Time series design
FEATURES
Manipulation of
independent
variable
Absence of either
randomization/
control group

Post test only

control design
Pre test posttest
control group design
Factorial design
Randomized block
design
Cross over design
FEATURES
Manipulation of
independent
variable
Presence of control
group
Randomization

Variable
a concept (e.g., intelligence, height, aptitude)
that can assume any one of a range of values
Independent variable - an activity of
characteristic believed to make a difference with
respect to some behavior
Ex - experimental variable, active variable,
cause, treatment
Dependent variable - the change or difference
occurring a result of the independent variable
Ex- Assigned variable, effect, outcome, posttest

Steps in conducting
experimental research
Decide if an experiment addresses the research
problem
Form hypotheses to test cause-effect relationships
Select an experimental treatment and introduce it
Identify study participants choose a type of
experimental design
Conduct the experiment
Organize and analyze the data
Develop an experimental research report

 The concept of validitythe experiment tests

the variable(s) that it purports to test
Threats to validity
Internal: factors other than the independent
variable that affect the dependent
variable( campbell 1963)
External: factors that affect the
generalizability of the study to groups and
settings beyond those of the experiment

Threats of internal validity

History
Maturation of subjects
Testing
Instrumentation change
Mortality
Selection bias maturation
interaction

History

Some event beside the experimental

treatment occurs during the course
of the study , and this event even
influence dependent variable.

Maturation of subjects
Experimental research is carried on
long period of time over a group of
subjects there may be changes in the
subjects in different ways.
Increase in height, weight.
Ex. Nutritional protocol on height &
weight of malnourished children

Testing
Effect of taking a pretest of subjects
performance of post test.
The effect of taking a pretest may
sensitize an individual and improve
the score of the post test.
Individuals generally score higher
during second test regardless of
treatment.

Instrument change
Changes in instruments, calibration
of instruments, observers or scorers
may cause changes in the
measurements

Mortality
Loss or dropout of the subject during
course of the study
The longer period of study the more
chance for dropout.
Ex. longitudinal study

Selection bias
Subjects are not selected randomly
for participation in groups , there is a
possibility of comparison may not
equivalent.

External validity
Hawthorne effect
Subjects may behave in particular
manner because they are aware that
they are being observed

Experimental effect
Threat to study results when
researchers characteristic ,
mannerism, behavior may influence
subject matter.

Reactive effect of
pretest
Effect of pretest occurs when
subjects have been sensitized to the
treatment because of taking pretest.
Ex pretest may sensitize to learn
about HIV/ AIDS irrespective of health
education is provided

Novelty effect:
Treatment is new , the subjects and researchers
act different ways
People : Generalization is not applicable
depending upon the race.
Place: Generalization not possible for people
living in rural and urban area
Time : older results can not be generalized over
periods of time.

Most common way to eliminate

threats
Experimental control Experimental control attempts
to predict events that will occur in the experimental
setting by neutralizing the effects of other factors.
Physical Control Gives all subjects equal exposure to
the independent variable. Controls non-experimental
variables that effect the dependent variable.
Selective Control Indirectly manipulate by selecting
in or out variables that cannot be controlled
Statistical Control Variables not conducive to
physical or selective manipulation may be controlled
by statistical techniques.

Criteria for evaluating

experimental Research
Does the experiment have a powerful
intervention?
Does it employ few treatment groups
(e.g. only two)?
Will participant profit from the
intervention?
Is there a systematic way the
researcher derived the number of
participants per group?

Criteria for evaluating

experimental Research
Were there an adequate number of
participants used in the study?
Were valid, reliable, and sensitive
measures or observations used?
Did the study control for extraneous
factors?
Did the researcher control for threats
to internal validity?

Types of pre experimental

design
The One-Shot Case Study
A single measure is recorded after the
treatment in administered.
Study lacks any comparison or control of
extraneous influences.
To remedy this design, a comparison could
be made with another group.
Diagrammed as:

The One-Group Pretest-Posttest

Design
Subjects are measured before and after
treatment is administered.
Uncontrolled-for threats to internal validity
exist.
To remedy this design, a comparison group
could be added.
Diagrammed as:

The Static-Group
Comparison Design
Use of 2 existing, or intact groups.
Experimental group is measured after being
exposed to treatment.
Control group is measured without having
been exposed to the treatment.
Diagrammed as:

The Static-Group Pretest-Posttest

Design
Pretest is given to both groups.
Gain or change = pretest score posttest score.
Better control of subject
characteristics threat.
A pretest raises the possibility of a
testing threat.

Pre experimental design

Advantages

Disadvantages

Very simple
Weak design to establish
Convenient to conduct in casual relationship
natural settings
between independent
and dependent variable
Suitable for beginners
Very little control over
the research
Higher threat to internal
validity

Characteristic of quasi
experimental research design
Manipulation of independent variable
Lack of one / two essential character
of true experimental design
Quasi independent variable used
instead of true independent variable.

Types of quasi experimental

design
Nonequivalent /Non randomized control group
design
O X O
O
O
random assignment of intact groups that are
pretested ( O ), exposed to a treatment ( X ) and
then posttested
(O)
Time-series design
O O O O X O O O O
a single group is pretested ( O ) repeatedly until
pretest scores are stable, exposed to a treatment
( X ) and, then, is repeatedly posttested ( O )

Possible Outcome
Patterns in a TimeSeries Design

Characteristics of true
experimental design
Manipulation control of
independent variable by the researcher
through treatment/ intervention
Control the use of control group and
extraneous variables on the dependent
variable
Randomization every subject gets
equal chance being assigned to
experimental and control group.

Advantages Disadvanta
ges
Most powerful design to
establish causal relationship
between independent and
dependent variable

Cannot be replicated in
studies conducted in human
begins due ethical problems

Purity of the observation

Many of the human variables

neither have valid measurable
criteria nor instruments to
measure.

Create conditions in a short

period of time that may take
years to occur naturally

Studies conducted in hospital /

community difficult to control
the extraneous variable

Conducted in laboratory,
experimental unit, specialized
research setting

Very difficult get co operation

for treatment/ intervention

True Experimental
The essential ingredient of a true experiment
is random assignment of subjects to
treatment groups
Random assignments is a powerful tool for
controlling threats to internal validity
The Randomized Posttest-only Control Group
Design
Both groups receiving different treatments

The Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group

Design
Pretest is included in this design

The Randomized Solomon Four-Group Design

Four groups used, with two pre-tested and two not

The Randomized Posttest-Only

Control Group Design
Experimental group tested after treatment
exposure.
Control group tested at the same time without
exposure to experimental treatment.
Includes random assignment to groups.
Threats to internal validity mortality,
attitudinal, implementation, data collector bias,
location and history.

Example of a Randomized
Posttest-Only Control Group
Design

The Randomized PretestPosttest Control Group Design

Experimental group tested before
and after treatment exposure
Control group tested at same two
times without exposure to
experimental treatment
Includes random assignment to
groups.
Pretest raises the possibility of a
pretest treatment interaction threat

Example of a Randomized
Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Design

The Randomized Solomon FourGroup Design

Combines pretest-posttest with control
group design and the posttest-only with
control group design.
Provides means of controlling the
interactive test effect and other sources
of extraneous variation.
Does include random assignment.
Weakness: requires a large sample.

Example of a Randomized
Solomon
Four-Group Design

A Randomized Posttest-Only
Control Group Design

Solomon four-group design

R O
X1 O
R O
X2 O
R
X1 O
R
X2 O
four groups are formed by random assignment
( R ) of participants, two groups are pretested (
O ) and two are not, one pretested and one un
pretested group receive the experimental
treatments ( X1, X2 ), each group is are
administered a posttest on the dependent
variable, and posttest scores are compared to
determine effectiveness of treatments

Factorial design
involve two or more independent
variables with at least one
independent variable being
manipulated by the researcher
two-by-two factorial design (four cells)
2 X 2
two types of factors (e.g., method of
instruction) each of which has two levels
(e.g., traditional vs. innovative)

Using a Factorial Design to Study

Effects of Method and Class Size
on Achievement

Illustration of Interaction and

No Interaction in a 2 by 2
Factorial Design

Example of a 4 by 2 Factorial
Design

Randomized block
design
Principle of local control along with
other two principle of experimental
design
subjects are first divided into groups
each group the subjects are
relatively homogeneous
The number of the equal in each
group
Extraneous variable is fixed

Type of
antihype Patients
rtensive with
primary
drugs
A
B
C

Blocks

DM patients
with
hypertensio
hypertensio n
n

Renal
patients
with
hypertensio
n

A,I
B,I
C,I

A,III
B,III
C,III

B,II
B,II
C,II

Cross over design / repeat

measure design
Subjects exposed more than one
treatment
Subjects randomly assigned to
different orders of treatment
Equal distribution of character
among the group

Latin square design

very frequently used in agricultural
research.
An experiment has to be made through
which the effects of five different varieties
of fertilizers on the yield of a certain crop.
out put occur depend on soil not only on
the fertilizer
L.S. design is used when there are two
major extraneous factors such as the
varying soil fertility and varying seeds

Seed
FERTILITY LEVEL
Differe X1
A
B
nces
X2
B
C

X3

X4

X5

Other designs
Descriptive design
Univariant descriptive design the
frequency of occurrence of the phenomenon
Ex the experience of patients suffering
from rheumatoid arthritis
Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among
pregnant women
Used to identify, describe the perception,
awareness, behavior, attitude, knowledge
and practice of people.

Exploratory design
Used to identify , explore and
describe the existing phenomenon
and its related factors
Ex . contributing factors of sleep
disturbance among patients
admitted in ICU

Comparative design
Comparing and contrasting two or
more sample of subjects on one or
more variable
Attributes-Knowledge, perception,
attitudes
Physical and psychological symptoms
Ex KAP on Vitamin D among
antenatal mothers

Prospective Cohort Study

Begin enquiry here
& work forwards

Population

Sample people
without
the disease

Outcomes
Disease (a)

Some have the

factor (c)

No Disease
Disease (b)

Some do not (d)

No Disease

(lapse of time)
Statistic = Relative Risk [RR] = (a/c) divided by (b/d)
This shows the ratio of incidence in exposed
compared to non-exposed.
RR > 1 implies a hazard;
RR < 1 implies a protective factor
95% CI are usually presented:
e.g., RR = 1.9 (95% CI 1.5, 2.3)

Note: as you begin

with people who do not
have the disease, you
can calculate incidence
but not prevalence.
(Prevalence would be
underestimated as you
omitted existing
cases)

Developmental research design

Cross sectional design
Researcher collect data at particular
point of time
Ex assessing the awareness on
swine flu among people of an area
Longitudinal design
Collect the extended period of time
follow up studies

Other type of trails

Pilot studies and feasibility studies run
before a large trail take place
Screening trails cervical cancer screening
trail
Prevention trails breast cancer prevention
trail.
Trails looking at causes and patterns of
disease
Case control studies
Sequential trails

Conclusion
There are several research designs
and the researcher must decide in
advance of collection and analysis of
data as to which design would prove
to be more appropriate for his
research project.

Applying What you Have

Learned: An Experimental Study
Review the article and look for the following:
The research problem and use of quantitative
research
Use of the literature
The purpose statement and research
hypothesis
Types and procedures of data collection
Types and procedures of data analysis and
interpretation
The overall report structure

THANK
YOU