NERVOUS SYSTEM

STRUCTURE OF
NEURON

KINDS OF NEURON

Resting Membrane Potential

A potential (-70mV) exists across the membrane of
a resting neuron the membrane is polarized

Voltage-Gated Channels
Move impulses along the nerve
Have voltage sensors that are sensitive to changes in
membrane potential
Allows for changes in the charge across the membrane

Distribution of ions gives rise to membrane potential

Usually negative inside and positive outside

Voltage-Gated Channel
Example: Na+ channel
Closed when the intracellular environment is negative
Open when the intracellular environment is positive Na+ can enter the cell

Ligand-Gated Channel
Example: Na+-K+ gated channel
Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the
extracellular receptor
Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the receptor Na+ enters the cell and K+ exits the cell

Resting Membrane
Potential

inside is negative relative to the outside

polarized membrane
due to distribution of ions
Na+/K+ pump

Resting Membrane Potential

Ionic differences are the consequence of:
Different membrane permeabilities due to passive
ion channels for Na+, K+, and Cl Operation of the sodium-potassium pump

Membrane Potentials:
Neurons use changes
in membrane potential to
Signals
receive, integrate, and send information

Membrane potential changes are produced by:

Changes in membrane permeability to ions
Alterations of ion concentrations across the membrane

Two types of signals are produced by a change in

membrane potential:
graded potentials (short-distance)
action potentials (long-distance)

Levels of Polarization
Depolarization inside of the membrane becomes
less negative (or even reverses) a reduction in
potential
Repolarization the membrane returns to its
resting membrane potential
Hyperpolarization inside of the membrane
becomes more negative than the resting potential
an increase in potential
Depolarization increases the probability of producing
nerve impulses. Hyperpolarization reduces the
probability of producing nerve impulses.

Changes in Membrane
Potential

Graded Potentials
Short-lived, local changes in membrane potential
(either depolarizations or hyperpolarizations)
Cause currents that decreases in magnitude with
distance
Their magnitude varies directly with the strength of
the stimulus the stronger the stimulus the more the
voltage changes and the farther the current goes
Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate
action potentials

Graded Potentials

Voltage changes in graded

potentials are decremental,
the charge is quickly lost
through the permeable
plasma membrane

short- distance signal

Action Potentials (APs)

An action potential in the axon of a neuron is called a
nerve impulse and is the way neurons communicate.
The AP is a brief reversal of membrane potential with
a total amplitude of 100 mV (from -70mV to +30mV)
APs do not decrease in strength with distance
The depolarization phase is followed by a
repolarization phase and often a short period of
hyperpolarization
Events of AP generation and transmission are the
same for skeletal muscle cells and neurons

Action Potential: Resting

and K channelsState
are closed

+
Na+
Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated
gates
Activation gates
closed in the resting
state
Inactivation gates
open in the resting
state

Depolarization opens the activation gate (rapid)

and closes the inactivation gate (slower) The gate
for the K+ is slowly opened with depolarization.

Depolarization Phase
Na+ activation gates open quickly and Na+ enters
causing local depolarization which opens more
activation gates and cell interior becomes
progressively less negative. Rapid depolarization and
polarity reversal.
Threshold a critical level of depolarization
(-55 to -50 mV) where
depolarization becomes
self-generating
Positive Feedback?

Repolarization Phase
Positive intracellular charge opposes further Na+ entry.
Sodium inactivation gates of Na+ channels close.
As sodium gates close, the slow voltage-sensitive K+
gates open and K+ leaves the cell following its
electrochemical gradient and the internal negativity of
the neuron is restored

Hyperpolarization
The slow K+ gates remain open longer than is needed
to restore the resting state. This excessive efflux causes
hyperpolarization of the membrane
The neuron is
insensitive to
stimulus and
depolarization
during this time

Role of the Sodium-Potassium

Pump
Repolarization restores the resting electrical
conditions of the neuron, but does not restore the
resting ionic conditions
Ionic redistribution is accomplished by the
sodium-potassium pump following repolarization

Potential Changes
at rest membrane is
polarized

threshold stimulus
reached
sodium channels open
and membrane
depolarizes

potassium leaves
cytoplasm and membrane
repolarizes

Phases of the Action Potential

Impulse Conduction

Action Potentials

Propagation of an Action Potential

The action potential is self-propagating and

moves away from the stimulus (point of
origin)

Threshold and Action

Potentials
Threshold Voltage
membrane is depolarized by 15
to 20 mV
Subthreshold stimuli produce subthreshold
depolarizations and are not translated into APs
Stronger threshold stimuli produce depolarizing
currents that are translated into action potentials
All-or-None phenomenon action potentials
either happen completely, or not at all

Stimulus Strength and AP Frequency

Absolute Refractory Period

When a section of membrane is generating an AP and
Na+ channels are open, the neuron cannot respond to
another stimulus. This is called a refractory period
The absolute refractory period is the time from
the opening of the Na+ activation gates until the
closing of inactivation gates

Relative Refractory Period

The relative refractory period is the interval
following the absolute refractory period when:
Na+ gates are closed
K+ gates are open
Repolarization is occurring
During this period, the threshold level is elevated,
allowing only strong stimuli to generate an AP
(a strong stimulus can cause more frequent AP
generation)

Refractory Periods

Synapse
A junction that mediates information transfer from
one neuron to another neuron or to an effector cell
Presynaptic neuron conducts impulses toward
the synapse (sender)
Postsynaptic neuron transmits impulses away
from the synapse (receiver)

Chemical Synapses

Specialized for the release and reception of chemical

neurotransmitters
Typically composed of two parts:
Axon terminal of the
presynaptic neuron containing
membrane-bound synaptic
vesicles
Receptor region on the
dendrite(s) or soma of the
postsynaptic neuron

Synaptic Cleft
Fluid-filled space separating the presynaptic and
postsynaptic neurons, prevents nerve impulses from
directly passing from one neuron to the next
Transmission across the synaptic cleft:
Is a chemical event (as opposed to an electrical
one)
Ensures unidirectional communication between
neurons

Synaptic Cleft: Information

Transfer
Nerve impulses reach the axon terminal of the
presynaptic neuron and open Ca2+ channels
Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft via
exocytosis
Neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds
to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
Postsynaptic membrane permeability changes due to
opening of ion channels, causing an excitatory or
inhibitory effect

Synaptic Cleft: Information

Transfer

Termination of Neurotransmitter
Effects

Neurotransmitter bound to a postsynaptic neuron

produces a continuous postsynaptic effect and also
blocks reception of additional messages
Terminating Mechanisms:
Degradation by enzymes
Uptake by astrocytes or the presynaptic
terminals
Diffusion away from the synaptic cleft

Synaptic Delay
Neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse across
the synapse, and bind to receptors (0.3-5.0 ms)
Synaptic delay is the rate-limiting step of neural
transmission

Postsynaptic Potentials
Neurotransmitter receptors mediate graded changes
in membrane potential according to:
The amount of neurotransmitter released
The amount of time the neurotransmitter is
bound to receptors

Inhibitory Postsynaptic
Potentials
Neurotransmitter binding to a receptor at inhibitory
synapses reduces a postsynaptic neurons ability to
generate an action potential
Postsynaptic membrane is hyperpolarized due to
increased permeability to K+ and/or Cl- ions. Na+
permeability is not affected.
Leaves the charge on the inner membrane face
more negative and the neuron becomes less likely
to fire.

EPSPs and IPSPs

Neurotransmitters
Chemicals used for neuron communication with
the body and the brain
More than 50 different neurotransmitters have
been identified
Classified chemically and functionally

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters Chemical
classification
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Biogenic amines
Amino acids
Peptides
Novel messengers: ATP and dissolved gases
NO and CO

Neurotransmitters:
Acetylcholine
Released at the neuromuscular junction
Enclosed in synaptic vesicles
Degraded by the acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Released by:
All neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle
Some neurons in the autonomic nervous
system

Functional Classification of
Neurotransmitters
Two classifications: excitatory and inhibitory
Excitatory neurotransmitters cause
depolarizations
(e.g., glutamate)
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause
hyperpolarizations (e.g., GABA and glycine)

Some neurotransmitters have both excitatory and

inhibitory effects (determined by the receptor type of
the postsynaptic neuron). ACh is excitatory at
neuromuscular junctions with skeletal muscle and
Inhibitory in cardiac muscle.

Divergence
one neuron sends
impulses to several
neurons
can amplify an impulse
impulse from a single
neuron in CNS may be
amplified to activate
enough motor units
needed for muscle
contraction

Convergence
neuron receives input from several
neurons
incoming impulses represent
information from different types of
sensory receptors
allows nervous system to collect,
process, and respond to information
makes it possible for a neuron to sum
impulses from different sources

Animations on ion flow and signaling

in neurons and muscles
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sit
es/0072437316/student_view0/chapter
45/animations.html#