PLANT

HORMONES
Phytohormone
 Plant hormones are chemical substances (Organic)
that regulate the cell growth and act as a signal
molecules.
 These substances are produced in a very low
concentration in the plant, and regulate the cellular &
Physiological process in the plant.
 Plant hormones affect the shape of the plant, seeds
growth, sex of flowers and the time of flowering.

 It also affect direction of growth of tissues, leaves,

stems and fruit development. In other words we can
say it affects the whole processes of the plant.
 These hormones are very vital for the growth of the
plant and in case of its absence may lead to formation
of abnormal cells.
 Growth of the plant is affected by many factors:
I. Genetic Factors.

II. Chemical Factors.

III. External Environmental Factors.

Characterization:

1. They are naturally produced within the cell. Large

number of these hormone have been synthesized to
control the growth of cultivated plant and in vitro.
These synthesized hormones known as Plant
Growth Regulators (PGR) in early times and less
applied now.
2. Biosynthesis of these plants is often diffuse and not
localized. Not like human and animals which have
circulatory systems transport the hormone and
chemicals. Plants transport these chemical passively
through the plant.
 3. The most important movement type is by
Cytoplasmic Movement within the cells, and diffuse
slowly between the cells.

 Also vascular tissues are used to transport these

hormones between different parts of the plants like
sieve tubes that transport sugars from leaves to the
roots and flowers, and like xylem that transport water
and minerals from roots to the foliage.
 4. Not all plant cells are affected by hormones and
even those respond are programmed to respond to
specific point and at certain location.
 5. Hormones produced can be transport to generate an
immediate effect or can be stored to be released later.

 This production can be regulated by controlling the

amount of chemicals used in synthesizing them or by
storing in cells that can inactivate them by
conjugation to carbohydrate, amino acids and
peptides.
 6. Cells can breakdown the hormones chemically in
the cells, leading to diminish or terminating their
action.
Classes Of Plant Hormone
 There are five major groups that can be vary from
plant to another.
 These groups have been classified according to their
structural similarity and plant physiology.
 The major hormones classes:
I. Abscisic Acid.

II. Auxins.

III. Cytokinins.

IV. Ethylene.

V. Gibberellins
ABSCISIC ACID (ABA)
 ABA is a sesquiterpenoid (15 carbons) that is
partially produced through mevalonic pathway in
chloroplast.
 Its formed by the cleavage of carotenoid (40 carbons).

 Violaxanthin (Carotenoid) Isomerase oxidation reaction

Xanthonin Spontaneously ABA Aldehyde

Oxidation ABA.
 It was known as Abscisin and Dormin, because it
play an important role in abscission of fruits and bud
dormancy (Prevention Of Growth).
 It also play an important role in response to
environmental stress and plant pathogens.
 It also inhibit the growth and division of cambium in
winter (By Inhibition of Auxin, & that is by blocking
the H pump).
 And also trans-located to stomatal guard cells by
osmotic pressure, where close the stomata and
prevent loss of water in case of low water availability.
 AUXINS

The most active Auxin member

Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)
 The term “Auxin” from Greek work Auxien which
means to grow.
 It has to induce cell elongation in stems.
 Auxins classified into:
I. Naturally occurring Auxins: 4-chloro-indole acetic
acid and Phenylacetic Acid (PAA).
II. Synthetic Auxins: 1-Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA)
and
 IAA is chemically similar to Tryptophan and can be
produced from it in three ways.
 Auxins stimulate production of ethylene at high
concentration.
 Auxins stimulate cell elongation and delay fruit ripening.
 Via Ethylene stimulation it can inhibit or promote leaf
and fruit abscission. And via Ethylene production it
promotes femaleness in dioecious flowers.
 It also promote production of flower parts.
 It stimulates root initiation on stem cuttings and lateral
food development.
 At high concentration it stimulate Ethylene production.
Abnormal growth due to lack of Auxin hormone
CYTOKININS
 Cytokinin presents in all higher plants fungi, mosses, bacteria
and tRNA of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
 There is more than 200 cytokinins (natural or synthesized).

With a higher concentration in meristematic regions and

continuous growing like roots and young leaves.
 Examples:

Kinetin: First cytokinin discovered, because its formed outside

the plant, its considered synthetic cytokinin.
Zeatin: Natural cytokinin isolated from corn (Zea mays).
 Most studies suggest its been synthesized in the roots and
trans-located via xylum to shoots.
 Biosynthesis:

Adenine + Isopentyl Pyrophosphate (IPP) Isomeraze

Isomer + Adenosine monophosphate Isopentenyl AMP
synthase Isopentenyl Adenosine -5’-
phosphate(IsopentenylAMP) phosphatase
Isopentenyl
Adenosine Ribose group removal Isopentenyl
Adenine.
 Isopentenyl can be converted into three types of cytokinin.
 Cytokinin Controls morphogenesis in plant tissue cultures, cytokinin
is required for the growth of a callus (an undifferentiated, tumor-like
mass of cells):
callus + auxin + no cytokinin > little growth of callus.
callus + auxin + cytokinin > callus grows well, undifferentiated.
 ratio of (cytokinin/auxin) are important in determining the fate of the
callus:
callus + low [cytokinin/auxin] > callus grows well, forms roots.
callus + high [cytokinin/auxin] > callus grows well, forms meristem
& shoots.
 Cytokinin can stimulate cell division.
 Can stimulate leaf expansion results from cell enlargment.
 Promotes conversion of Etiolates into chloroplasts via
stimulation of chlorophyll synthesis.
 Also its enhance stomata opening in some species.
GIBBERELLIN
 All gibberellin are diterpinoid synthesized from acetyl CoA via
mevalonic pathway. Composed of 20 or 19 carbons arranged in
4 or 5 ring systems. And synthesized in the young tissues.
 Gibberellin physiological activity varies according to the type of
Gibberellin and type of plant.
 Stimulate stem division by stimulation of cell division.
 Breaks seed dormancy in some plants that require stratification
or light for germination.
 It stimulates enzyme production (α- amylase) in germinating
cereal grains for mobilization of food reserves.
 Gibberellin also induce maleness in dioecious flowers (Sex
Expression).
 Gillerellin are classified on structure and function.
And all gibberellin are derived from ent-gibberellane
skelleton.
 There is about 136 gibberellen names as GA1, GA2…
GAN according to the order of discovery.
 Gibberellin was first recognized in 1926 by a
japanese scientist, Eiichi Kurosawa, studying
bakanae, the "foolish seedling" disease in rice. It was
first isolated in 1935 by Teijiro Yabuta, from fungal
strains (Gibberella fujikuroi) provided by Kurosawa.
Yabuta called the isolate gibberellin.
Ethylene (Ethene)
 Its differ than the other hormones that it’s a gaseous
hormone.
 Its produced in all higher plants. Its effectiveness
depends on its rate of production versus rate of
escaping to the atmosphere.
 The production is higher in darkness and younger
cells.
 Ethylene is produced fro Methionine in all tissues.
 Accumulation of Ethylene in the plant inhibits the leaf
expansion, in case of shoots or plants growing in the light,
the production of Ethylene is reduced and results in
increasing the leaf expansion.
 When the growing shoot hits an obstacle before reaching
the surface of the ground , it inhibits cell elongation
causing swelling of the stem, this stem will apply more
pressure on this object in the path of growth. If the shoot
didn’t reach the surface the effect will prolonger. And this
accumulated Ethylene will effect the shoot (Natural
Geotropic Response) causing it to grow around this object
to reach the surface.
 Ethylene effects the diameter and height of stems: In
case of winds that produce more lateral stress on the
shoot, this increase the production of Ethylene
resulting in thicker stems to stand against the wind.
 Ethylene also stimulate the ripening and abscission of
fruits. Also stimulates the flower opening
 The nuclear protein Ethylene Insensitive 2 (EIN2) is
regulated by Ethylene production, and this protein
regulates other hormones like ABA and stress
hormones.
 Ethephon (Ethrel ) which is a commercial
product containing a diluted solution of 2-
chloroethylphosphonic acid which breaks down
to give Ethylene in stored plants.
Reference:
 Plant Physiology, Edition 1998.
 University Of Hamburg (Phytohormones and other growth regulators:
Gibberellin).
 Ethylene biosynthese and its regulation in higher plants (Annual Review
of plant physiology).
 Journal of experimental botany 1987 (Control of Stomatal Behavior by
Abscisic Acid which Apparently Originates in the Roots).
 Journal Of Plant Growth Regulation 2002 (Recent advances in our
understanding of cytokinin biology).
 Biology Online website.
 Wikipedia Website.
 Plant Growth and development: Hormones And Environment 2002
(Amsterdam, The Academic Press P. 140)
 Salisbury and Ross 1992.