Session 5

Photovoltaic cells

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells
How PV Cells Work: Photons to
Electrons
Photovoltaic cells are made of high-grade
silicon, a semi-conductor.

When sunlight shines on a PV cell

electrons break free and create an
electrical current.

When light strikes the cell, some energy

is absorbed by the semiconductor and
energy is transferred.

The energy dislodges electrons allowing

them to move freely.

PV cells have one or more electrical fields

that force freed electrons to flow only in
one direction.
DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells
Atomic structure of silicon

Under stable conditions Si: 14 protons,14

neutron,& 14 electrons

When a photon of solar radiation strikes the 2 electrons

outer shell ,an electron is released in inner
shell
The incoming photon loses an amount of
energy required to eject an electron from its 2 electrons
shell (photovoltaic effect) in outer
shell
Note 1: if the photons energy is more than
the electrons binding energy, the remainder of
the energy will appear as heat in the silicon
8electrons
in second
Therefore not all solar radiation is used to shell
produce free electrons
Nucleus 14
Note 2: max. conversion efficiency of silicon protons &
PV cells is less than 40%
DAMON 14electron
FYSON
s
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

The photoelectric effect

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

There is N-type silicon and P-type

silicon, standing for negative and
positive respectively. They are
created by using different sorts of
impurities in the silicon to produce
different electrical charges. The N-
type has free electrons in the atomic
structure, and the P-type has free
spaces (or holes) for electrons.
Therefore, when they are put
together, an electrical field is
produced by the free electrons in the
N-type silicon going to fill the gaps in
the P-type. Not all the gaps are filled
however, but an equilibrium is
reached at the junction. At the point
when photons hit the solar cell, if it
has the right amount of energy, it
DAMON FYSON
pops free an electron. Then, because
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

For traditional PV
solar panels two
halves of one pure
silicon crystal are
doped with two
different dopants
(e.g. arsenic,
gallium,
aluminium,
phosphorus). One
half of the crystal
is left electron
deficient - i.e. the
atoms it contains
are short of
electrons. This is
called the p-type
layer. The other
half of the crystal DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

PN junction,
the half labelled p- has a shortage of
electrons so contains acceptor atoms each
with a hole which could be 'filled' by an
electron.
the half labelled n- has excess electrons
and so contains donor atoms which have
electrons have moved from the n-
an extra electron
type (negative) side to the p-type
(positive) side of the crystal
recombining with holes.
likewise holes have moved from the
p-type side to the n-type side.
Material close to the junction in the n-type side is positive and
material close to the junction in the p-type side is negative

a potential between the two sides of around 0.6-0.7 volts in a

silicon PN junction.
DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells
Summary PN
junction
solar cells work with a semiconductor
that has been doped to produce two
different regions separated by a
p-n junction.
Across this junction, the two types of
charge carrier electrons and holes
are able to cross and transfer their
charge to the new region.

This migration of charge results in a

potential gradient or electrical slope
When sunlight strikes a solar cell,
atoms are bombarded with particles
of light called photons, and give up
electrons. When an electron is kicked
out of an atom, it leaves behind a
hole, which has an equal and
opposite (positive) charge. DAMON FYSON
 , as described in the sections below.

Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

The I-V curve of an illuminated PV

cell has the shape shown in Figure 3
as the voltage across the measuring
load is swept from zero to VOC, and
many performance parameters for
the cell can be determined from this
data,
At the open circuit situation R=Rmax
an open circuit voltage Voc is
measured and circuit current is zero
As the resistance decreases the
electrical current increases and
voltage decreases
Maximum current is called the short
circuit current Isc and is measured
s/cct situation R=0 and the voltage is
zero
Every solar cell has a characteristic-V
DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells
Short Circuit Current (ISC)
The short circuit current ISC
corresponds to the short circuit
condition when the impedance is low
and is calculated when the voltage
equals 0.
I (at V=0) = ISC
ISC occurs at the beginning of the
forward-bias sweep and is the
maximum current value in the power
quadrant. For an ideal cell, this
maximum current value is the total
current produced in the solar cell by
photon excitation.
ISC = IMAX = I for forward-bias power
quadrant
Open Circuit Voltage (VOC)
The open circuit voltage (VOC) occurs
when there is no current passing
through the cell. DAMON FYSON Courtesy National Instruments
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Maximum Power (PMAX), Current

at PMAX (IMP), Voltage at PMAX (VMP)
The power produced by the cell in
Watts can be easily calculated along
the I-V sweep by the equation P=IV.
At the ISC and VOC points, the power
will be zero and the maximum value
for power will occur between the two.
The voltage and current at this
maximum power point are denoted as
VMP and IMP respectively.

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of

the solar cell. It is calculated by comparing the
maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that
would be output at both the open circuit voltage and
short circuit current together. FF can also be interpreted
graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas

A larger fill factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V

sweep that is more square-like. Typical fill factors range
from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as a
percentage. DAMON FYSON
Courtesy National Instruments
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Efficiency ()
Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pout,
compared to the solar power input, Pin, into the PV cell. Pout can
be taken to be PMAX since the solar cell can be operated up to its
maximum power output to get the maximum efficiency.

Pin is taken as the product of the irradiance of the incident

light, measured in W/m2 or in suns (1000 W/m2), with the
surface area of the solar cell [m2]. The maximum efficiency
(MAX) found from a light test is not only an indication of the
performance of the device under test, but, like all of the I-V
parameters, can also be affected by ambient conditions such
as temperature and the intensity and spectrum of the incident
light. For this reason, it is recommended to test and compare
Courtesy
PV cells using similar lighting and National Instruments
temperature conditions
DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

During operation, the efficiency of solar cells is reduced by

the dissipation of power across internal resistances. These
parasitic resistances can be modeled as a parallel shunt
resistance (RSH) and series resistance (RS),

For an ideal cell, RSH would be infinite and would not provide
an alternate path for current to flow, while RS would be zero,
resulting in no further voltage drop before the load.
Decreasing RSH and increasing Rs will decrease the fill factor
(FF) and PMAX as shown in Figure 6. If RSH is decreased too
much, VOC will drop, while increasing RS excessively can cause
DAMON FYSON
ISC to drop instead.
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

If incident light is prevented from

exciting the solar cell, the I-V curve
shown in Figure 8 can be obtained.
This I-V curve is simply a reflection of
the No Light curve from Figure 1
about the V-axis. The slope of the
linear region of the curve in the third
quadrant (reverse-bias) is a
continuation of the linear region in
the first quadrant, which is the same
linear region used to calculate RSH in
Figure 7

Courtesy National Instruments

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

It follows that RSH can be derived from the I-V plot obtained
with or without providing light excitation, even when power is
sourced to the cell. It is important to note, however, that for
real cells, these resistances are often a function of the light
level, and can differ in value between the light and dark tests.

Courtesy National Instruments

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Temperature Measurement
Considerations
The crystals used to make PV cells,
like all semiconductors, are sensitive
to temperature. Figure 9 depicts the
effect of temperature on an I-V
curve. When a PV cell is exposed to
higher temperatures, ISC increases
slightly, while VOC decreases more
significantly.
For a specified set of ambient
conditions, higher temperatures
result in a decrease in the maximum
power output PMAX
Courtesy National
Instruments
DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

I-V Curves for Modules

For a module or array of PV cells, the shape of the I-V curve
does not change. However, it is scaled based on the number
of cells connected in series and in parallel. When n is the
number of cells connected in series and m is the number of
cells connected in parallel and ISC and VOC are values for
individual cells, the I-V curve shown in Figure 10 is produced.

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

irradiance
Irradiance is measured in
the units of watts per square
meter (W/m2) and milli watts
per square centimeter (m
W/cm2). Watts is a
measure of the power of the
light or how bright the light
is. In a very clear weather at
midday (12 p.m.), the
irradiance reaching a surface
that faces the sun is about
1000 W/m2 (or 100 m
W/cm2). This irradiance of
1000 W/m2 is called full sun,
one sun or AM1 intensity
DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Figure above shows I-V

curves for 100, 500 and
1000 W/m2 . The I-V curve
at 1000 W/m2 is for a
module that faces the sun
directly. When the sun is
exactly overhead in tropical
countries, the module
should be horizontal for
maximum current. When
the sun is low in the sky at
30 above the horizon, the
module should be tilted
towards the sun at an
angle of 60 from
horizontal for maximum
current DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

For the 1000 W/m2 I-V

curve, figure above
shows the effect of cell
temperature. As the
temperature rises above
0 C, Voc falls while Isc
gets slightly higher.
However, the graph
shows that the current at
16 V decreases because
of the decrease of Voc.
Therefore, to get the
maximum current
output, modules should
be mounted so that air
can circulate around
them freely to keep the DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

There are three basic types of solar cell

Crystalline solar cells are wired in series to produce
solar panels. As each cell produces a voltage of
between 0.5 and 0.6 Volts, 36 cells are needed to
produce an open-circuit voltage of about 20 Volts.
This is sufficient to charge a 12 Volt battery under
most conditions

DAMON FYSON
CellsIma
ge 1 of 3
Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Monocrystalline made from a

single large crystal, cut from ingots.
Most efficient, but also the most
expensive. Somewhat better in low
light conditions (but not as good as
some advertising hype would have
you believe).

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Polycrystalline basically cast

blocks of silicon which may contain
many small crystals. This is probably
the most common type right now.
Slightly less efficient than single
crystal, but once set into a frame with
36 or so other cells, the actual
difference in watts per square foot is
not much.
Although the theoretical efficiency of
monocrystalline cells is slightly higher
than that of polycrystalline cells,
there is little practical difference in
performance. Crystalline cells
generally have a longer lifetime than
DAMON FYSON
the amorphous variety.
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells
Amorphous - technology is most
often seen in small solar panels, such
as those in calculators or garden
lamps, although amorphous panels
are increasingly used in larger
applications. They are made by
depositing a thin film of silicon onto a
sheet of another material such as
steel. The panel is formed as one
piece and the individual cells are not
as visible as in other types.
The efficiency of amorphous solar
panels is not as high as those made
from individual solar cells, although
this has improved over recent years
to the point where they can be seen
as a practical alternative to panels
made with crystalline cells. Their
great advantage lies in their relatively
low cost per Watt of power
generated. This can be offset, DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Vaporware this is a 4th type one

that pops up in the news once in a
while proclaiming to be the next
major breakthrough that will make
plastic spray on solar cells that will
cost around 5 cents a watt, or some
similar claim. None have reached
production yet as of this writing.

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Cause of performance loss Explanatiom Typic

al
loss
Grid coverage The surface of the cell has to be covered with metallic grid to collect electrons 4.0%
produced by photovoltaic effect

Reflection loss Some of the incoming solar radiation is reflected from the front surface of the cell. 2.0%
Spurious absorption Some of the electron rejected from their electron shell will be absorbed by impurity 1.0%
atoms in the crystal
Photon energy less than Some of the incoming solar radiation does not have sufficient energy to eject an 19%
required absorption electron from its solar shell
energy(hv>Eg)
Photon energy greater than Some of the incoming solar radiation has more than enough energy to eject an 28%
required absorption electron from its solar shell The extra energy is dissipated as heat in the crystal
energy(hv>Eg)

Quantum efficiency Of the photons with the correct energy to eject an electron from its electron shell only 4.5%
approx.90% will actually strike an electron and eject it
Absorption not near junction Some photon are absorbed by the crystal far from the junction. The photons create 19%
electrons hole pairs which do nothing but immediately recombine, leaving only a little
heat as their legacy
Electrical resistance The solar cell and its circuit have a small but significant electrical resistance 4.75
(fill factor)

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Take home questions

1) Why cant all solar radiation be used to produce free electrons

when is impinges on a solar cell?
2) What is meant by;
a) p-type silicon
b) N-type silicon
3) What is a pn junction? What happens when a n-type and p type
semiconductor are fused together
4) Describe what happens at the depletion region
5)What causes the free electrons to move when there are produced
by the photoelectric effect near the pn junction in a solar cell?
6)Briefly explain the follwing term
c) Voc
d) Isc
e) Vmp
f) Imp

DAMON FYSON
 Session 5
Photovoltaic cells

Take home questions continued

7) Why is the output of PV cells recorded and rated at 25C

8) Which characteristic of a solar cell is reasonably constant under

varying irradiance

9) What factors affect the efficiency of solar cells?

10) List the types of solar PV cell technology currently available.

DAMON FYSON