Unit 2: Macronutrients

WHAT ARE MACRONUTRIENTS?

Macronutrients are nutrients that provide

calories/energy.
Since macro means large, they are nutrients
needed in large amounts.
There are three macronutrients:
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat

2
Macronutrients contribute to the energy pool of the body

Energy Pool Fats

Carbohydrates of the body
20% - 35%
(45-65%) (100%)

Proteins
(10% - 35%)
3
 Cont
While each of these macronutrients provides
calories, the amount of calories that each one
provides varies.
Carbohydrate provides 4kcalories per gram.
Protein provides 4kcalories per gram.
Fat provides 9kcalories per gram.
Besides carbohydrate, protein, and fat the only other
substance that provides calories is alcohol.
Alcohol provides 7kcalories per gram. however, is
not a macronutrient because we do not need it for
survival.
 Carbohydrates

Objectives
Chemical and physical properties and classification
Food sources, digestion, absorption, metabolism &
utilization (function)
Treatment & prevention of deficiency
Recommended intake/dietary recommendations
Energy balance, obesity & associated health
problems
 Cont
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are organic molecules that are made up of
element carbon, hydrogen and oxygen .
There should be at least three carbons for a molecule to be
carbohydrate.
They generally vary from simple sugars containing three-carbon
atom to very complex polymers.
Mostly the hexoses (six carbon sugars) and pentoses (five carbon
sugars) and their polymers play an important role in nutrition.
The general formula is CnH2nOn.
Different elements of carbohydrates are brought together by
plants chlorophyll through the process of photosynthesis (H2O,
solar&CO2).
 Classification of carbohydrates
Simple classification of carbohydrates (CHO) that are
important in nutrition is based on the number of
single CHO molecules found in each chemical
structure.
Classification of carbohydrate
 Chemical and physical characteristics of
carbohydrates
I. Characteristics of Mono and Disaccharides: -
Are soluble in water, have crystalline structure and sweet
taste; they are called sugars and all have the same suffix-
ose.
II. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides joined
by glycosidic linkages.
Are insoluble in water,
They do not form crystals
don't taste sweet and no characteristic Suffix.
 Monosaccharides
1. Glucose
Also sometimes called dextrose /grape sugar/blood
sugar widely distributed in nature in animals & men, it
is the end product of digestion of starch, sucrose,
maltose & Lactose.
Found in fruits, vegetables, honey, corn syrup &
molasses.
Major fuel source that is oxidized by cells for energy.
After meal converted to glycogen or triacylglycerol and
stored.
Absorbed actively coupled with sodium (glucose-
sodium coupled with energy consumption)
 Monosac..

2. Fructose
Have some chemical formula as glucose C6 H12 O6 &
only differ in their chemical groups arrangement.
Fructose is the sweetest of all sugars, is also known
as fruit sugar. It is produced during digestion of
sucrose & is found in nectar of flowers, honey &
Molasses.
It is absorbed by diffusion with out any consumption
of energy for absorption.
 Monosac....cont

3. Galactose
Not found free in nature but is produced in the body
during the digestion of lactose.
It is also called milk sugar
During lactation glucose converted to Galactose so
that milk can be produced.
 Disaccharides

1. Sucrose
Is made up of a 1glucose unit + 1 fructose unit.
Found in molasses, sorghum & corn syrups.
It is also called table sugar and used at home in daily
diet.
2. Maltose
Maltose is two glucose units.
Not consumed in large amount in the average diet.
Maltose (malt sugar) is found in sprouting grains.
Is one of the commonly used sweetening agents.
 Disaca
Yields glucose upon hydrolysis.
Found in beer, infant formulas, malted breakfast
cereals.
Commercially produced by malting and fermentation
of grains and in the body during digestion of starch.
3. Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Only found in milk.
The amount is 6.8 & 4.8 g /100 ml in human & cow's
milk, respectively.
When hydrolyzed yields Galactose & glucose.
 Sugar alcohols
Not found free in nature, but are produced as
intermediate products during metabolism of
carbohydrates or are produced commercially prepared.
Are Sorbitol, Mannitol and Xylitol.
Used as sweetening agent for food products.
Absorbed more slowly so no increase in blood glucose
and no stimulation of insulin.
No teeth decay because not used by dental flora.
 Polysaccharides
Are complex Carbohydrates that contain as many as 60,000
simple CHO molecules. Starch, glycogen and cellulose are
important in nutrition
1. starch
Is the most abundant CHO throughout the world in man's
diet.
Roots, seeds & tubers all contain starch. The seeds of plants
are richest storehouses of starch.
E.g. corn, millet, rice, wheat, peas & beans are important
cereals and grains which contain starch up to 40%.
 Polysaca..
Is not soluble in cold water but when boiled with
water they form viscous solution.
When Temperature raises starch granules swell &
mixture becomes viscous. This change is Called
"gelatinization".
Cooking makes starch-containing foods more
palatable & more easily digestible.
End product of starch digestion is glucose and partial
break down products is dextrin that can be formed
during food preparation & digestion.
 Polysaca..

2. Glycogen
Is composed of thousands of glucose units & highly
branched structure.
It is found in liver & muscle of animals.
Glycogen is a reserve fuel that serves between meals
and overnight
Body has limited capacity to store glycogen, it can
store only about 350 grams.
Two third is in muscle for energy needs of muscle
cells and 1/3 is in the liver, as source of energy for
any body cells.
 Polysaca..

3. Cellulose
Contains as many as 12,000 glucose units. It Comprises
of 50% or more of all carbon found in plants and is
structural constituent of the plant cell wall.
Humans & Carnivores do not have the enzyme to
digest cellulose.
Man gets it indirectly from ruminant animals (cow,
sheep).
It is also called dietary fiber or roughage.
 Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of
Carbohydrates
Digestion
Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth by the
chewing action of the teeth and salivary amylase,
which breaks the starch molecules down to dextrin.
In the Small intestine, Pancreatic bicarbonate
neutralizes the stomach acid and raises the pH to
optimal level for intestinal enzymes.
Pancreatic amylase then hydrolyses maltose,
maltotriose and small oligosaccharids.
 Diges.......

Brush border of intestinal epithelial cells enzymes:

Maltose glucose + glucose(by maltase)
Lactose glucose + galactose (by lactase)
Sucrose glucose +fructose (by sucrase)
.......etc
 Diges.......
Oligosaccharides and non-starch polysaccharides
prevent cancer and other degenerative diseases
(atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, diabetes
mellitus and hypertension)
Preventing secondary bile acid circulation
Decreasing intestinal transit time
Decreasing contact of carcinogens with intestinal cells
Decreasing absorption of fats and sugars
Prevent constipation and other gastrointestinal
disorders
 Diges.......
Lactose intolerance
Inherited or acquired defect resulting in inadequate
secretion of lactase needed to break down lactose to its
simple sugars.
The undigested lactose produces symptoms including
abdominal pain, diarrhoea & flatulence, intolerance
begins early in life & becomes more prevalent with age.
Non-starch polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and resistant
starches are digested differently.
They usually escape digestion by human enzymes in the
upper gut (small intestine) and get fermented by an aerobic
bacteria in the colon giving raise to a number of outputs.
 Absorption

All carbohydrates are absorbed as monosaccharide's at

the Small intestine.
Galactose & Glucose pass through microvilli into the
blood stream by active transport coupled with sodium.
Fructose absorbed by diffusion.
New evidence indicates that very small amounts of
maltose, sucrose & lactose may be absorbed as sugar
compounds. This may occur after eating a meal rich in
sugars.
 Carbohydrate Metabolism
Once absorbed carbohydrates have the three fates
depending up on the bodies energy balance:
Utilized either aerobically or an aerobically to produce
energy in the form of ATP
Stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and muscle
Stored in the form of fat if the body is excess of energy.
Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle
Gluconeogenesis
 Carbohydrate Metabo........

Carbohydrate and fats are main source of energy

(ATP) for animal cells.
Glucose is the principal sugar used by cells and
tissues. It is usually obtained from:
Digestion of food
Dietary fructose and Galactose
Liver glycogen
Non-carbohydrate sources like amino acids,
glycerol from fat, indirectly the fatty acids from
fat.
 Carbohydrate Metabo ....................

Galactosemia: Infant hereditary disorder

characterized by inability to convert Galactose to
glucose.
SignandSymptoms:
- Galactose in the urine/increase blood level.
- Enlarged liver and spleen
- Failure to thrive
- Mental retardation
- Cataract
 Utilization(function ) of Carbohydrates

1. Energy supply
. The main function of carbohydrates is to meet immediate
energy needs as glucose, some stored as glycogen in liver &
muscles and rest converted to fat & stored as adipose tissue.
The central nervous system (CNS) is entirely dependent on
glucose for energy, other tissues can utilize glycogen when
blood sugar is low.
2. Protein - Sparing Action:
. Protein can be used for energy at expense of tissue building
& maintenance during starvation.
. A person can mobilize a maximum of 4kg of protein from
his body during starvation before he fails to resist to death.
 Utilization......
3. Encouraging Growth of Useful Bacteria:
Some carbohydrates like fructose, oligosaccharides
selectively promote the growth of important bacteria
like lactobacillus and bifido bacteria.
For this reason two new terms have been coined.
Pre-biotic: foodstuffs that selectively stimulate the growth
of essential bacteria (e.g. Fructose oligosaccharides).
Pro-biotic: Bacteria which benefit the host by acting up on
the food (fructose containing oligosaccharides).
Intestinal bacteria involved in the production of
certain vitamins, absorption of Ca and P etc.
 Utilization.........
4. Promoting Normal Functioning of The Lower Intestinal Tract
Oligosaccharides and non-starch polysaccharides as a dietary
fiber promote perystalsis and normal movement of the food
and waste products along the gastro intestinal tract and
prevent occurrence of diseases like constipation,
diverticulosis, haemorrhoids, cancer and also coronary heart
disease.
5. Improving the palatability of food/Drink:
In the form of sugar (sucrose) they are added to many kinds
of foods like biscuits, soft drink, coffee, tea, etc..
6. As Component of Body Substances and Compounds
Heparin, Nervous tissue, Ribose in RNA and DNA.
 RDA(required daily allowance)
Carbohydrates can be synthesized in the body from
glucogenicaminoacids (gluconeogenesis), however, their
daily intake from food should not contribute more than
50% of ones total daily energy requirement.
Up on excessive consumption carbohydrates could be
converted to lipids and get stored leading to obesity
and related chronic diseases.
As the brain uses glucose as a source of energy in most
of the cases, decreased intake sugars may lead to
utilization of bodies protein pool for glucose synthesis,
leading to cachexia.
 Food source of carbohydrate
Free Sugars(high CHO density) - Syrups, Cereal
grains, dried fruits, vegetables, processed foods (pasta),
breads, candies, fruits like banana, dates....etc.
Oligosaccharides (medium density)- Garlic, onions,
peas, bean, legumes , fruits and vegetables ....etc.
Polysacharides - fruits, vegetables, cereals and
legumes, whole grain cereals ....etc.
 Proteins
Objectives
Chemical and physical properties and
classification.
Food sources, digestion, absorption, metabolism &
utilization (function).
Deficiency & toxicity.
Treatment & prevention of deficiency.
Recommended intake/dietary recommendations.
Energy balance, obesity & associated health
problems
 Protein..
Definition
Protein was the first substance to be recognized as a vital part of
living tissue.
The name was derived from a Greek word meaning, of first
importance.
Proteins are distributed in the body in the following proportion
to the different organs and tissues.
About half of our bodys dry weight is contributed by proteins,
which are distributed as follows:
-One third of our bodys protein is found in the muscles.
-One fifth is in the bones and cartilages.
-One tenth is in the skin and
-the rest is in other tissues & body fluids.
 Protein..
Compositions
Proteins like carbohydrates and fats contain carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
The unique feature of proteins in terms of composition is
that 16% of their weight is nitrogen.
They could also contain other elements like Sulphur,
Phosphorus, Iron and Cobalt.
Plants synthesize proteins from nitrates and ammonia.
Animals on the other hand obtain the nitrogen they require
from protein foods of either plant or animal origin.
Animal metabolism, excretion and death finally return the
nitrogen in to the soil in continuation of the nitrogen cycle.
 Protein.```
Structure and Classification
The basis of protein structure is the amino acid, of
which 20 have been recognized as constituents of
most proteins.
All Amino acids have amino group (NH2) and
Carboxylic Group (COO2)
But, they are differentiated by the remainder of the
molecule (R) as shown in the figure.
H
R C COOH

NH2
 Structure and classif..

Non- essential amino acids: can be synthesized in

the body from other nitrogen sources.
Essential amino acids: cannot be synthesized in the
body and need to be taken from food
Their absence from the diet leads to poor growth
performance by a growing animal.
 Structure and classif
List of 20 Amino Acids
Alanine Glutamic acid Methionine*
Arginine Glycine Phenyalanine*
Aspargine Histidine* Proline
Aspartic acid Isoleucine* Serine
Cystine Leucine* Threonine*
Cysteine Lysine* Tyrosine
Tryptophan* Valine*
 Stracture and classif.cont

8 amino acids are essential for adults.

Histidine is essential amino acid for infants making the
total number of essential amino acids to be 9. because
infants cannot maintain growth without histidine and
yet cannot synthesize it in the body from other
nitrogenous sources
Two amino acids combined by a peptide bond gives
dipeptide bond .
Three amino acids tripeptide.
A chain of 10 to100 amino acids polypeptide.
Hundred to several thousand amino acids protein.
 Classification of Proteins
I. Based on chemical composition.
a) Simple protein: yield amino-acids upon complete
hydrolysis E.g.: - albumin- in eggs
b) Compound/conjugated proteins: Protein + Non
protein
E.g. Hgb (Protein + hem)- Blood
Casein (Protein + Phosphoric acid)- Milk
Mucin (Protein + CHO)- Saliva
Lipoprotein (Protein + Lipid)- Blood
 Classification of ProtCont
II. Based on Nutritional Value:- This classification
depends on the essential amino acids content of the
protein.
a. Complete protein: contain all the essential amino
acids in the proportion that is required to support
growth and mentainance of tissue.
E.g. Almost all animal proteins are complete amino
acids because they resemble body protein (Egg and
Milk )
 Classification of Prot

b. Incomplete Proteins: proteins that do not contain all

essential amino acids
E.g. proteins of plant origin (legumes, cereals). Soya
bean has the best quality protein from plant family
even if it is not complete protein.
A complementary protein is one, which can supply
the deficient of essential amino acid in another protein.
E.g. Legumes (best in lysine but lack methionine) can
compliment Cereals (high in methionine but lack
lysine). E.g. Bread + Peanut Butter.
 Classification of Prot

III.Based on Conformation of the Protein:

a. Globular proteins
-Tightly folded polypeptide chain - spherical or globular shape
-Mostly soluble in water & salt solution
E.g. Enzymes, antibodies, hormones, Hgb
b.Fibrous proteins
-Polypeptide chains arranged in parallel manner along an axis.
-Tough & in soluble in water
E.g. Collagen of tendons & bone matrix
Keratin of hair, skin, nails and
Elastin of blood vessels
 Classification of Prot
IV. Based on their Chemical Structure
Primary structure: sequence of amino acids (peptide
bond)
Secondary Structure: folding of the polypeptide chain
upon itself (intra molecular hydrogen bonding)
Tertiary Structure: globular proteins or fibrous
protein(sulfide bond)
Quaternary Structure: aggregation of individual poly
peptide chains by electrostatic bonding.
 Food sources for proteins

Animal Sources
-Are high quality proteins.
-Are complete proteins E.g. meat, egg, poultry, milk, fish, lamb,
beef .....etc.
-Have high biological value.
Plant Sources
-Mostly incomplete e.g. legumes, cereals
-Contribute significant amount E.g. Soybean
Combining the two (animal & plant) to get better quality protein.
 Digestion of Protein
The digestion of proteins begins in the mouth by the mechanical
breakdown of the protenous foodstuffs.
In the stomach enzyme called pepsin digest proteins chemically.
In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes trypsin and chemo
trypsin, and proteilytic enzymes secreted by intestinal luminal
cells, dipetidases and amino peptidases convert proteins in to
amino acids.
In general, enzymes that lyse the internal bonds of the
polypeptide chain in the protein are called endo-peptidases and
those, which lyse the terminal bonds of the polypepetide bond in
the protein are called exo-peptidases.
Cocking increases the digestibility of proteins. Over heating can
destroy some amino acids. Cooking with water makes proteins
more palatable.
 Absorption

Proteins are absorbed by active transport

mechanism coupled with sodium.
Different amino acids have different carriers. For
acidic, basic and neutral amino acids there are
acidic, basic and neutral carriers, respectively.
 Nitrogen Balance

Nitrogen balance refers to the situation where nitrogen intake

from food is equal to nitrogen excretion.
This occurs in a healthy non-growing adult person taking
adequate amount of energy from carbohydrates.
Nitrogen is excreted through urine, feces, sweat etc.
In some situations Nitrogen excretion may be greater than
nitrogen intake, this is called Negative nitrogen balance. This
occurs when a person is in a state of catabolism as in the case of
illness, starvation, malnutrition and other pathologic
conditions.
Nitrogen excretion can be less than nitrogen intake from food
called positive nitrogen balance. Examples of this situation are
 Functions of Proteins

Building the body and Growth of new tissue

Maintenance of existing tissue
Synthesis of enzymes, hormones, all antibodies
Provide essential amino acids
Fluid movement in the body: Determine the direction
of movement of fluids by exerting
Source of energy
Buffer: Due to the carboxyl or acid group (-COO) and
amino or basic group (- NH2)
.others.
 Protein metabolism
Proteins are de-aminated and the amino group goes to
urea cycle and
Carbon skeleton will be involved in the intermediary
metabolic pathway to liberate energy.
 Methods of Assessing Protein Quality
Protein requirement refers to the fulfilment of
bodys nutritional needs for total protein and for
essential amino acids.
Protein quality refers to the ability of a protein to
provide the function of tissues and supporting growth
in a growing animal.
Provision of these functions depends on the amount of
essential amino acids found in the protein ( i.e. The
protein quality).
There are different methods of assessing protein
quality.
 Methods of Assessing.

A. Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER): Refers to the amount of

weight gained by a growing animal per gram protein ingested.
. Evaluation of quality depends on measure N 2 retained in the
body from what has been ingested.
. This could be determined:
Directly- N2 balance studies
Indirectly- Growth of young animal
wtgain(kg )
PER
Pr oten int ake( g )
. The better the quality of protein, the greater the amount of weight
gained per gram of protein ingested by a growing animal.
 Methods of Assessing .Cont
B. Net protein Utilization (NPU): This refers to the
amount of protein ingested from food that is retained
in the body (used in the building of the body).
Ingetsted protein - fecalN2 - Urinary N2 X100
NPU
Injestedprotein

This is a commonly used procedure for determining

protein quality, it measures the proportion of food N2
that is retained in the body under specified conditions.
 Methods of Assessing ..

C. Amino Acid Score (Chemical Score)

The concentration of the limiting - amino acid per gm of protein of
the food being tested and expressed as percentage of the concentration
of this amino acid in a gram of protein of reference food.
A limiting amino acid is the one that is found in smallest quantity in
that food. For example, lysine in cereals, methionine in legumes and
tryphtophan in corn.
Reference proteins usually used are egg and milk, sometimes
synthetic proteins are used.

Chemical score >70%: the protein is good quality and if it is <70%,

the protein is poor quality
 Protein Deficiency

Protein deficiency in young children causes a syndrome

called protein-energy malnutrition which is manifested
by milder to sever wasting and stunting of children.
The sever forms of PEM cover spectrum of clinical
pictures, ranging from frank kwashiorkor to sever
Marasmus.
PEM not only results in the retardation of physical growth
of children, but also brings about lags in the mental
development of children.
Children in developing countries (infants, pre-school) are
affected by its sever clinical forms that are Marasmus,
Kwashiorkor and a Mixed feature (Marasmic-
kwashiorkor).
 Protein defi..
Marasmus is common in children < 12 months and
Kwashiorkor mainly affects < 5 years children
especially 2-3 years.
PEM or sever PEM is regarded as multiple deficiency
state and not the deficiency of only proteins; hence
treatment should follow such an approach.
 RECOMMENDED DAILY ALLOWANCE (RDA) OF
PROTEINS FOR THE DIFFERENT AGE AND SEX GROUPS

For adults in general intake of 0.8 gram of protein /kg

of body weight is adequate.
RDA Calculations for Proteins should consider age, sex,
physiological states of the subject (Pregnancy),
pathological conditions (infection or any other illness),
the quality of the protein etc.
RECOMMENDED DAILY ALLOWANCE (RDA) OF
PROTEINS FOR THE DIFFERENT AGE AND SEX GROUPS
AGE, yrs. Gram of protein

INFANTS 0-0.5 2.2/per kg of weight

0.5-1.0 2/per kg of weight
CHILDREN 1-3 2.3
4-6 3.0
7-10 36
Male 11-14 44
15-18 54
19-22 54
23-50 56
51+ 56

FEMALE 11-14 44
15-18 48
19-22 46
23-50 46
51+ 46

PREGNANT +30
LACTATING +20
 Lipids
Objectives
Chemical and physical properties and classification
Food sources, digestion, absorption, metabolism &
utilization (function)
Deficiency & toxicity
Treatment & prevention of deficiency
Recommended intake/ dietary recommendations
Energy balance, obesity & associated health problems
 Lipid..
Definition
Are a group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water
but soluble inorganic solvents (alcohol, ether, chloroform...etc).
Majority (95%) of dietary lipids constitutes triglycerides (fats
and oils).
Generally lipids: -
Are the form of stored energy in animals.
Have high-energy value i.e. 9kcal /gm of fat.
Act as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins.
Like carbohydrates contain C, H and O2.
Some have Phosphorus and Nitrogen
Lipids that are liquid at room temperature are called Oils.
Lipids that are solid at room temperature are called Fats
 lipid
I. Classification
Nutritionally important lipids are classified into 3
main groups on the basis of their Chemical structure.
Simple lipids- include fats and oils
Compound lipids- includes Phospholipids,
lipoprotein
Derived lipid- sterols.
Some authors classify lipids as
Structural lipids (Phospholipids),
Metabolic lipids (fatty acids, lipoproteins and sterols)
Storage lipids (triglycerides).
 Lipid ...

1. Fatty Acids (FA)

Fatty acids are composed of straight chain of carbon
atoms with hydrogen atoms attached to acid group at
one end.
Most fatty acids have even number of carbon atoms,
which are 2-24.
The two variables which determine the physical
property of lipids are the length of carbon chain and
the degree of saturation.
 Lipid .
Classification of Fatty Acids
1. On the basis of the number of c- chain as
a. Short chain: 2-4 carbon atoms (eg. Butyric acid)
b. Medium chain: 6-12 carbon atoms (Caprillic acid)
c. Long chain:14-18 carbon atoms (palmitic acid,
stearic acid)
d. Extra long chain: more than 20 carbon atoms
(Arachidic acid)
 Lipid
2. Degree of Saturation
The degree of saturation refers to the number of
double bonds between carbon atoms.
If all of the carbon atoms in a fatty acid are
saturated with all hydrogen atoms they can hold, no
double bond can exist. Such fatty acids are classified
as saturated. If double bond exist we call it
unsaturated.
 Lipid
2.1 Saturated FA: -
Saturated fatty acids are found mostly from animal
foods. For example butter contains up to 60%
saturated fatty acids while the saturated fatty acid
content of animal meats varies from (28%) in beef to
46% in lamb.
The only plant sources of saturated fatty acids are
Coconut oil and palm oil.
All short or medium chain fatty acids are saturated.
Long chain fatty acids may be either saturated or
unsaturated. The major saturated fatty acids are
palmitic and stearic acids.
 Lipid

2.2 Unsaturated FA:

Have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The
double bonds are formed between the carbon atoms to satisfy
natures laws that each carbon atom have 4 bonds connecting
it to other atoms.
Most unsaturated fatty acids are from plant origin.
Vegetable oils (like olive oil, safflower oil) and fish are rich
in unsaturated fatty acids.
Human breast milk is also rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids.
a. Monounsaturated FA: contain only one double bond
between carbon atoms. The most prevalent MUFA in the diet
is oleic acid.
 Lipid
b. Polyunsaturated FA (PUFA):- They have two or more
double bonds between carbon atoms.
Linoleic acid (omega-6 PUFA) has first double bond at
carbon six atom from the methyl carbon and is one of the
PUFAs commonly found in both animal and plant foods.
Linolenic acid (Omega-3 PUFA) has their first double
bond at carbon 3 atom from the methyl carbon and found
in plants and fish oils.
Essential Fatty acids are omega-6 and Omega-3.
Omega-6: is the shortest chain omega-6 fatty acid, which
converted in the body to Arachidonic acid.
Arachidonic acid is precursor for prostaglandins and
other physiologically active molecules.
 Lipid ....
II. Triglycerides
Three fatty acids combine with a glycerol molecule to form triglyceride.
A triglyceride may be solid (fat) or liquid (oil) at room temperature depending of
the degree of saturation of fatty acids and length of carbon chain of the fatty acids
constituting it.
Fats: long chain and saturated
Oil: short chain and unsaturated
Liquid vegetable oils + hydrogen = solid fats; hydrogenation e.g. Margarine
Fat from Junk foods (hydrogenated foods such as potato chips, cookies, etc.) is
very hard to digest and is strongly associated with vascular disease.
Hydrogenation transforms the shape of a fatty acids from cis to trans form,
which is difficulty to digest.
If all the three fatty acids forming the triglyceride are the same it is called simple
triglyceride and if they are different it is called mixed triglyceride.
 Lipid
III. Phospholipids, Sterols and Lipoproteins
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are structural compounds found in cell
membranes.
Their chemical structure constitutes 2 fatty acids, Nitrogen
base, acid phosphate and glycerol molecule.
Sterols
Sterols are precursors of vitamin D, which are found both in
plants and animals, ergo sterol is found in lower plants and
7-dehydrocholesterol is found in the subcutaneous tissues
of animals.
 Lipid ...
Cholesterol
Is the most studied sterol because of its epidemiological
linkage with atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease.
Excessive consumption of cholesterol increases the
serum cholesterol level that in turn facilitates atheroma
formation in the vascular structures.
When the coronary blood vessels are involved, there
may be ischemia of the myocardium resulting in
ischemic heart disease(heart attack).
The ischemia may manifest by angina pain with
referred pain to the tip of the left small figure.
If excessive ischemia, then sudden death can happen.
 Lipid
Limiting consumption of food rich in cholesterol such as:
egg yolk, butter, cream, cheese, animal fat is very
important besides regular exercise to avert the toll of
morbidity and mortality resulting from such a problem.
Lipoproteins
These are compound lipids that contain both protein and
various types and amounts of lipids. They are 25-30%
proteins and the remaining as lipids.
They are made mostly in the liver and are used to
transport water insoluble lipids throughout the blood
soluble fat protein complexes.
 Lipid ...
Based on their density the lipoproteins are classified as :-
High Density Lipoprotein (HDL): - Primarily contain protein with
small amounts of triglycerides and cholesterol. HDL transports
cholesterol from the tissues to the liver to be metabolized. High
serum levels of HDL are protective against atherosclerosis.
Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL):- This is composed mainly of
cholesterol. LDL transports cholesterol from the liver to tissues.
High serum level of LDL greatly increases the risk of
atherosclerosis. Diets that are high in saturated fatty acids are
associated with elevations in LDL cholesterol.
Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL):- Contain primarily
triglycerides with some protein and cholesterol. VLDL transports
endogenous triglycerides from the liver to tissues. High serum level
of VLDL increases the risk of atherosclerosis.
 Lipid
Chylomicrons:
Composed mainly of triglycerides encased in a
protein and phospholipids coating.
Chylomicrons are formed for the purpose of
transporting absorbed triglycerides from the intestine
to the liver.
High serum Chylomicrons levels do not increase the
risk of atherosclerosis.
 Lipid
Digestion and Absorption of Fats/ other Lipids
The most important problem in the digestion of lipids
is making them water-soluble. The hydrophilic parts
of the lipids will remain facing the outside water
medium while the hydrophobic heads turn inside
making fat globules (micelles).
Bile salts make lipids water-soluble and disperse
them increasing their surface area for the lipolytic
enzymes to act upon. This effect of bile salts is called
emulsifying effect.
 Lipid....
Digestion of Lipids
Mechanical digestion of lipids begins in the mouth.
In the stomach, gastric lipase takes care of 30% of
the digestion of lipids.
Pancreatic lipase which does have co lipase, breaks
lipids into free fatty acids plus glycerol or
diglyceride plus fatty acid or monoglyceride plus
two fatty acids.
A minimal amount of chemical digestion of fat occurs
in the stomach through the action of gastric lipase
that breaks down.
 Lipid..
Absorption
Once the digestion of lipids is complete, they will be
absorbed through intestinal luminal cell membrane by
simple diffusion.
The fate there after depends upon the size of fatty acid.
Fatty acids with less than or equal to 10 carbon atoms will
be absorbed directly in to the portal system as free fatty
acids.
However, fatty acids with larger chains of carbon, will be
re-esterified to form Triglycerides, cholesterol will be re-
esterfied into cholestrol ester.
This will be coated with phospholipids, proteins and this
will form Chylomicrons.
 Lipid..
Chylomicrom will be absorbed through the
lacteals in to the lymphatic system via which they
join the systemic circulation at the left subclavian
vein.
Chylomiron circulates through the tissues and an
enzyme called lipoproteinlipase lyses contents of
chylomicrons resulting in their increased density
and decreased volume.
Accordingly, Chylomicrons will be converted
eventually to high density lipoproteins.
Chylomicrons VLDL LDL HDL.
 Lipid ....
Metabolism of lipids: Once the triglycerides are hydrolysed
in to fatty acids and glycerol, they will join the pathways
depicted by the following figure for their metabolism
Triglyceri
des
Glycerol Fatty acids

Pyruvate
B-Oxidation
Acetyl
COA
Co2+H2o+ATP
Krebs Cycle
 Lipid ..
Functions of Fats and Other Lipids
1. Are concentrated sources of energy, i.e. 9 cal/gm of fat. Thus relatively
small amounts of high fat foods contributes large amount of calories to the
diet.
2. When deposited under the skin function as insulator of heat.
3. Improve the sweetness of food.
4. Vehicle for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
5. Support for the visceral of organ.
6. Reserves (storage forms) of energy in animals and man.
7. Phospholipids are important structural materials in the formation of cell
membranes that prevents absorption of H20 soluble substances and
evaporation of H20 from the skin.
8. Cholesterol is important in the synthesis of bile salts in the liver.
9. Lipoproteins are important transport for lipid substances in the plasma.
10.They form myelin sheath of nerves
 Lipid....
Problems of Excessive and Inadequate Intake of Lipids
Excessive intakes of lipids results in a positive energy
balance and obesity which in turn results in a number of
complications like, atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes
mellitus.
Inadequate or no intake of lipids results in essential fatty
acid deficiency manifested by itching, skin abnormality
and other health problems. Linoleic acid is an essential
fatty acid. Once we have linoleic acid from food,
arachidonic acid can be synthesized in the body from
linoleic acid. Different Physiologically important
chemicals like prostaglandins, thromboxanes and
cytokines are synthesized from arachidonic acid.
 Lipids..
Food Sources of lipids
Animal sources: Fish, Butter, Meat (Beef, pork and
lamb), egg, milk.
Plant Sources: Vegetables, Fruits (Avocado), Nuts,
Soya bean and all vegetable oils.
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