Lecture: Week 12

Modular Numbers and Magic Squares

Modular numbers
-Modular numbers up to mod 12

Formulae to determine the sum, difference

and product involving modular numbers: If a
= b(mod c), d = e(mod c), then
oa + d = b(mod c) + e(mod c),
oa d = b(mod c) - e(mod c),
a x d = b(mod c) x e(mod c).
Also known as clock arithmetic
* Suppose it is now 8 oclock in the morning and
you plan to study for 7 hours. What time will it
be when you have finished studying?
* Suppose it is now 8 oclock in the morning and
you plan to study for 7 hours. What time will it
be when you have finished studying?
* It will be 3 oclock in the evening, of course.
* In this setting, 8 + 7 = 3,
* Hence, 8 + 7 15 because the only numbers
on the clock are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
and 12.
* Suppose it is now 8 oclock in the morning and
we are in classroom. 9 hours before you were
sleeping in your bedroom. What time was it
you were in bedroom?
* Suppose it is now 8 oclock in the morning and
we are in classroom. 9 hours before you were
sleeping in your bedroom. What time was it
you were in bedroom?
* It will be 11 oclock, of course.
* In this setting, 8 - 9 = 11,
* Hence, 8 - 9 -1 because the only numbers on
the clock are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
and 12.
In mathematics,modular arithmetic
(sometimes calledclock arithmetic) is a system
ofarithmeticforintegers, where numbers
"wrap around" after they reach a certain value
- The modulus.
*The Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler
pioneered the modern approach to congruence in
about 1750, when he explicitly introduced the
idea of congruencemoduloa numberN.
*Modular arithmetic was further advanced
byCarl Friedrich Gaussian
* For a positive integern, two integersaandb
are said to becongruentmodulon,
written:

* if their differenceabis an integermultiple

ofn, the numbernis called themodulusof the
congruence.
* For example, because
3814=24, which is a multiple of12.
* http://
www.artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/
Modular_arithmetic/Introduction
* Note that the answer is the remainder when the sum is divided by 12
8 + 7 = 15 and 15 12 = 1 remainder 3

Similarly,
* 9 + 7 = 16 and 16 12 = 1
remainder 4
* 3 + 15 = 18 and 18 12 = 1
remainder 6
* 2 + 9 = 11 and 11 12 = 0
remainder 11
* 12 + 15 = 27 and 27 12 = 2 remainder 3
Definition
*Two numbers a and b, are congruent modulo m
if the difference between them, a - b is divisible
by m.
*

a b (mod m)
* 27 is congruent to 3 modulo 12 since the
difference between 27 and 3 is 24, and 24 is
divisible by 12,
* 27 3 (mod 12)
* Similarly, 15 and 39
are also congruent to 3
modulo 12, 39 3 (mod 12)
* 15 3 (mod 12)
These are also true.
12 0 (mod 12)
14 2 (mod 12)
29 5 (mod 12)
59 ___(mod 12)
36 ___(mod 12)
* (a mod n) means the remainder
when a is divided by n.

* a mod n = r

* a = dn + r for some integer d
(a mod n) means the remainder
when a is divided by n.

a mod n = r

a = dn + r for some integer d

 Definition: Modular equivalence
a b [mod n]
(a mod n) = (b mod n)
n | (a-b)

31 81 [mod 2] Written as a n b,
31 2 81
and spoken
a and b are
31 80 [mod 7] equivalent or
31 7 80 congruent modulo
n
n is an equivalence relation

In other words, it is

Reflexive: a n a

Symmetric: (a n b) (b n a)

Transitive: (a n b and b n c) (a n
c)
n induces a natural partition of the
integers into n residue classes.

(residue = what left over = remainder)

Define residue class

[k] = the set of all integers
that are congruent to k
modulo n.
Residue Classes Mod 3:

[0] = { , -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, ..}

[1] = { , -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, ..}
[2] = { , -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, ..}

[-6] = { , -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, ..} = [0]

[7] = { , -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, ..} = [1]
[-1] = { , -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, ..} = [2]
 Why do we care about these
residue classes?
Because we can replace any member
of a residue class with another member
when doing addition or multiplication mod n
and the answer will not change

To calculate: 249 * 504 mod 251

just do -2 * 2 = -4 = 247

We also care about it because computers do

arithmetic modulo n, where n is 2^32 or 2^64.
Fundamental lemma of
plus and times mod n:

If (x n y) and (a n b). Then

1) x + a n y + b
2) x * a n y * b
Proof of 2: xa = yb (mod n)
(The other proof is similar)

xny iff x = i n + y for some integer i

anb iff a = j n + b for some integer j

xa = (i n + y)(j n + b) = n(ijn+ib+jy) + y
nyb
Another Simple Fact:
If (x n y) and (k|n), then: x k y

Example: 10 6 16 10 3 16

Proof:
x n y iff x = in + y for some integer i
Let j=n/k, or n=jk Then we have:
x = ijk + y

x = (ij)k + y therefore x k y
A Unique Representation System
Modulo n:

We pick one representative from

each residue class and do all our
calculations using these representatives.

Unsurprisingly, we use 0, 1, 2, , n-1

Unique representation system mod 3

Finite set S = {0, 1, 2}

+ and * defined on S:

+ 0 1 2 * 0 1 2
0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 0 1 0 1 2
2 2 0 1 2 0 2 1
Unique representation system mod 4

Finite set S = {0, 1, 2, 3}

+ and * defined on S:
+ 0 1 2 3 * 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 3
2 2 3 0 1 2 0 2 0 2
3 3 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1
 Notation

Zn = {0, 1, 2, , n-1}

Define operations +n and *n:

a +n b = (a + b mod n)
a *n b = (a * b mod n)
Some properties of the operation +n

[Closed]
x, y Zn x +n y Zn

[Associative]
x, y, z Zn (x +n y) +n z = x +n (y +n z)

[Commutative]
x, y Zn x +n y = y +n x

Similar properties also hold for *n

Unique representation system mod 3

Finite set S = {0, 1, 2}

+ and * defined on S:

+ 0 1 2 * 0 1 2
0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 0 1 0 1 2
2 2 0 1 2 0 2 1
Unique representation system mod 3

Finite set Z3 = {0, 1, 2}

two associative, commutative operators on Z3

Unique representation system mod 3

Finite set Z3 = {0, 1, 2}

two associative, commutative operators on Z3

+ 0 1 2 * 0 1 2
0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 0 1 0 1 2
2 2 0 1 2 0 2 1
Unique representation system mod 2

Finite set Z2 = {0, 1}

two associative, commutative operators on Z2

+2 *2
0 1 0 1
XOR AND

0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 1 0 1
Z5 = {0,1,2,3,4}

+ 0 1 2 3 4 * 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 4 0 1 0 1 2 3
2 2 3 4 0 1 2 0
3 3 4 0 1 2 3 0 3 1 4
4 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 3 2
Z6 = {0,1,2,3,4,5}

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 * 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 0 1 2 3 4
2 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 0 2 4 0 2
3 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 0
4 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 2 0 4
5 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 4 3 2
For addition tables, rows and columns
always are a permutation of Zn
(A group as well see later in the course.)

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5
+ 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4 5 0
1 1 2 3 4 0 2 2 3 4 5 0 1
2 2 3 4 0 1 3 3 4 5 0 1 2
3 3 4 0 1 2 4 4 5 0 1 2 3
4 4 0 1 2 3 5 5 0 1 2 3 4
For multiplication, some rows and columns
are permutation of Zn, while others arent
* 0 1 2 3 4 * 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 0 2 4 1 3 2 0 2 4 0 2 4

3 0 3 1 4 2 3 0 3 0 3 0 3

4 0 4 3 2 1 4 0 4 2 0 4 2
5 0 5 4 3 2 1
whats happening here?
 For addition, the permutation property
means you can solve, say,
4 + ___ = 1 (mod 6)
4 + ___ = x (mod 6) for any x in Z6

Subtraction mod n is + 0 1 2 3 4 5
well-defined 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
Each row has a 0, 2 2 3 4 5 0 1
hence a is that element
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
such that a + (-a) = 0
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
a b = a + (-b) 5 5 0 1 2 3 4
For multiplication, if a row has a permutation
you can solve, say,
5 * ___ = 4 (mod 6)
or, 5 * ___ = 1 (mod 6)

* 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 0 3 0 3 0 3
4 0 4 2 0 4 2
5 0 5 4 3 2 1
 But if the row does not have the permutation
property, how do you solve
no solutions! 3 * ___ = 4 (mod 6)
multiple solutions! 3 * ___ = 3 (mod 6)

* 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
3 * ___ = 1 (mod 6) 2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 0 3 0 3 0 3
no multiplicative
4 0 4 2 0 4 2
inverse!
5 0 5 4 3 2 1
 Division
If you define 1/a (mod n) = a-1 (mod n)
as the element b in Zn
such that a * b = 1 (mod n)

Then x/y (mod n)

=
x * 1/y (mod n)

Hence we can divide out by only the ys

for which 1/y is defined!
And which rows do have the permutation property?

* 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 0 2

3 0 3

4 0 4

5 0 5

6 0 6

7 0 7

consider *8 on Z8
A visual way to understand
multiplication
and the
permutation property.
There are exactly 8 distinct
multiples of 3 modulo 8.
0
7
1

6
2

5 3

hit all numbers row 3 has the permutation property

There are exactly 2 distinct
multiples of 4 modulo 8.
0
7
1

6
2

5 3

row 4 does not have permutation property for *8 on Z8

There are exactly 1 distinct
multiples of 8 modulo 8.
0
7
1

6
2

5 3

4
There are exactly 4 distinct
multiples of 6 modulo 8.
0
7
1

6
2

5 3

4
* exactly 8 distinct multiples of 3 modulo 8.
* exactly 2 distinct multiples of 4 modulo 8
* exactly 1 distinct multiple of 8 modulo 8
* exactly 4 distinct multiples of 6 modulo 8

* exactly __________________ distinct

multiples of x modulo y
Theorem: There are exactly
LCM(n,c)/c = n/GCD(c,n)
distinct multiples of c modulo n
Theorem: There are exactly k = n/GCD(c,n)
distinct multiples of c modulo n, and these
multiples are { c*i mod n | 0 i < k }

Proof:
Clearly, c/GCD(c,n) 1 is a whole number

ck = cn/GCD(c,n) = n(c/GCD(c,n)) n 0
There are k distinct multiples of c mod n:
c*0, c*1, c*2, , c*(k-1)

Also, k = factors of n missing from c

cx n cy n|c(x-y) k|(x-y) x-y k
There are k multiples of c.

Hence exactly k.
Theorem: There are exactly
LCM(n,c)/c = n/GCD(c,n)
distinct multiples of c modulo n

Hence,
only those values of c with GCD(c,n) = 1
have n distinct multiples
(i.e., the permutation property for *n on
Zn )
And remember, permutation property means
you can divide out by c (working mod n)
 Fundamental lemma of division
modulo n:
if GCD(c,n)=1, then ca n cb a n b
Proof:
c*1, c*2, c*3, , c*(n-1) are all in distinct
residue classes modulo n.

Q E D.
If you want to extend to
general c and n

ca n cb a n/gcd(c,n) b
Fundamental lemmas mod n:

If (x n y) and (a n b). Then

1) x + a n y + b
2) x * a n y * b
3) x - a n y b
if gcd(c,n)=1
4) cx n cy a n b
New definition:

Zn* = {x Zn | GCD(x,n) =1}

Multiplication over this set Zn*

has the cancellation property.
 Z6 = {0, 1,2,3,4,5}
Z6* = {1,5}

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 * 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 0 2 4 0 2 4

3 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 0 3 0 3 0 3

4 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 2 0 4 2

5 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 4 3 2 1
 Weve got closure
Recall we proved that Zn was closed
under addition and multiplication?

What about Zn* under multiplication?

Fact: if a,b Zn*, then ab (mod n) in Zn*

Proof: if gcd(a,n) = gcd(b,n) = 1,

then gcd(ab, n) = 1
then gcd(ab mod n, n) = 1
Z12* = {0 x < 12 | gcd(x,12) = 1}
= {1,5,7,11}

*12 1 5 7 11

1 1 5 7 11
5 5 1 11 7
7 7 11 1 5
11 11 7 5 1
Z15*

* 1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14

1 1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14
2 2 4 8 14 1 7 11 13
4 4 8 1 13 2 14 7 11
7 7 14 13 4 11 2 1 8
8 8 1 2 11 4 13 14 7
11 11 7 14 2 13 1 8 4
13 13 11 7 1 14 8 4 2
14 14 13 11 8 7 4 2 1
 Z5* = {1,2,3,4} = Z5 \ {0}

*
1 2 3 4
5

1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
Fact:
For prime p, the set Zp* = Zp \ {0}

Proof:
It just follows from the
definition!

For prime p, all 0 < x < p

satisfy
gcd(x,p) = 1