Electrical and Instrumentation

Technology (BKF2332)
 2 Credits
Lecture: 2 hours X 14 weeks
Reference: Thomas L. Floyd, Principles of
Electric Circuits (9th edition), Prentice Hall
Assessment: Test 40%, Quizzes 10%,
Assignments 10%, Final Examination 40%
 INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRIC SYSTEM
1.1 Atomic Structure
1.2 Current flow in a circuits
1.3 Electrical System
1.4 Electrical units
1.5 Introduction to electrical components
1.6 Magnetism and Electromagnetism
1.7 Electrical Safety
1.8 Complex number
1.1 Atomic Structure
All matter is made of atoms (the smallest
particle of an element).
All atoms consist of electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
The configuration of electrons in an atom is
the key factor in determining how well a given
conductive or semiconductive material
conducts electric current.
 Atom is visualized as having a planetary type
of structure that consists of a central nucleus
surrounded by orbiting electrons.
The nucleus consists of protons (positively
charged particles) and neutrons (uncharged
particles) .
The negative charge are called electrons,
which orbit the nucleus.
 The atomic number
is the number of
protons.
In the neutral atom,
the number of
electrons is equal
to the number of
protons.
Electron Proton Neutron
 Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at
certain distances from the nucleus.
Each orbit corresponds to a different energy
level within the atom known as a shell.
The shells are designated 1,2,3 and so on. 1
is the closest to the nucleus.
The outer shell is called the valence shell.
Electrons further from the nucleus are at
higher energy levels and are less tightly
bound to the atom than those closer to the
nucleus.
 This is because the force of attraction between
the positively charged nucleus and the
negatively charged electron decreases with the
increasing distance from the nucleus.
Electrons in the valence shell (outermost shell)
are called valence electrons.
If the valence electron absorbs sufficient
energy, it escapes from the atom and becomes
a free electron.
Electrons in this shell are involved in chemical
reactions and in metals they account for
electrical and thermal conductivity.
 The number of electrons in each shell follows
a predictable pattern according to the formula
2N2, where N is the number of the shell.
N=1 , up to 2 electrons
N=2, up to 8 electrons
N=3, up to 18 electrons
N=4, up to 32 electrons
 The amount of energy required to free a
valence electron is related to the number of
electrons in the outer shell.
An atom can have up to eight valence
electrons in the outer shell.
The more complete the outer shell, the more
energy is required to remove an electron.
Electrical Charge
There is a force (F) between charges. Like charges
repel; unlike charges attract. This force, called an
electric field.
The force is directly proportional to charge.
The force is inversely proportional to square of distance
Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with the
phenomena and properties of stationary or slow-moving
electric charges.
Voltage
Voltage (V) is the energy (W) per charge (Q).
It is responsible for establishing current.
+ -
W
V= + -
Q
+ -
Work is done as a charge is + - e-
moved in the electric field + -
from one potential to another. + -
+ -
+ -
+ -
Voltage
One volt is the potential difference (voltage)
between two points when one joule of energy
is used to move one coulomb of charge from
one point to the other.
Voltage Source:
Voltage is produced by means of chemical
energy, light energy, and magnetic energy
combined with mechanical motion:
Battery
Fuel Cells
Solar Cells
DC Generator
1.2 Current flow in a circuits
Current is the rate of flow of charge
Voltage: Driving influence to cause continuous flow of
electrons.
Free electrons are available in all conductive and
semiconductives materials. Free electrons drift randomly
in all directions.
If a voltage is placed across a conductive or
semiconductives material, one end becomes positive
and the other negative.
The repulsive force produced by the negative end
causes the free electrons to move towards the positive
end.
The movement of these electrons is the electrical current
 Current (I) is the amount of charge (Q) that
flows past a point in a unit of time (t).
Q
I=
t
One ampere is a number of electrons having a total charge of 1 C
move through a given cross section in 1 s. 1 C of charge carried
by 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
Question:
What is the current if 2 C passes a point in 5 s?
0.4 A
There are two accepted conventions for the direction of current :-
Electron flow direction - current is the movement of free electrons
from the negative end of the material to the positive end.
Conventional current current is out of the positive terminal of
voltage source into the negative terminal of the source.

The current flow continues for as long as it is required by fulfilled the

following conditions;
-Complete circuits around to move electron
-Driving influence to cause continuous flow

16
1.3: Electrical System

Simple lamp system 17

 Transmission system

Source Control Load

Parts of an electrical system

 The source provide energy for electrical
system (e.g. battery, generator)
The load absorb electrical energy supplied

( e.g. lamps, heater)

The transmission system conducts energy
from source to the load (e.g. insulated wire)
The control apparatus to control (e.g.
switch (controlling the opening or closing the
circuit), circuit breaker)
 Switch (control apparatus)

Generator G Load bulb

(source) (load unit)

Wires (transmission system)

Simple lamp circuit

Closed and Open Circuit
A closed circuit - a circuit in which the current has a
complete path
An open circuit when the current path is broken
1.4 Electrical units
The units and symbols are defined by the SI system.
Letters are used in electronics to represent quantities and units.
Italic letters stand for the quantity and the nonitalic letters
represent the unit of that quantity.
1.5: Introduction to Electrical components

Resistors
Resist or limit, electrical current in a circuit.
Two main categories: Fixed (set during
manufacturing)or variable.

23
Variable resistors are designed so that their resistance
values can be change easily.

24
 Resistor Color codes

25
26
 Conductors

Materials that readily allow current. They have a

large number of free electrons and are
characterized by one to three valence electrons in
their structure.

Most metals are good conductors.

Copper, aluminium, silver, platinum, bronze, gold

 Semiconductors

Are classed below the conductors in their ability to

carry current because they have less free
electrons than conductors.
Semiconductors have four valence electrons in
their structures.
Common semiconductor materials are silicon and
germanium.
 Insulators

Nonmetallic materials that are poor conductors of

electric current.

Are used to prevent current.

Have no free electrons in their structure.

Glass, rubber, teflon, ceramic.

 Capacitors

Store electrical charge.

They are used to block direct current (dc) and

pass alternating current (ac)
 Common types of fixes capacitors
 Inductors

Also known as coils.

Are used to store enegy in an electomagnetic

field.
Protective Devices
Fuses and circuit breakers:
To create an open circuit when the current
exceeds a specified number of amperes due
to malfunction in a circuit.
The basic difference between a fuse and a
circuit breaker is that when a fuse is blown it
must be replaced; but when a circuit breaker
opens, it can be reset and reused repeatedly.
1.6 Magnetism and
Electromagnetism
A permanent magnet, such as the bar
magnet shown in figure below has a
magnetic field surrounding it that consists of
lines of force, or flux lines.
Attraction and Repulsion
Unlike magnetic poles have an attractive
force between them.
Two like poles repel each other.
Altering a Magnetic Field
When nonmagnetic materials such as paper,
glass, wood or plastic are placed in a
magnetic field, the lines of force are
unaltered.
When a magnetic material such as iron is
placed in a magnetic field, the lines of force
tend to be altered to pass through the
magnetic material.
 Magnetic Flux ()
The group of force lines going from north pole to
the south pole of a magnet is called the magnetic
flux.
The number of lines of force in a magnetic field
determines the value of the flux. The more lines of
force, the greater the flux and the stronger the
magnetic field.
The unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb).
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is the production of a
magnetic field by current in a conductor.
Electromagnets are used in devices such as
tape recorders, electric motors, speakers,
solenoids, and relays.
 Current produces a magnetic field called an
electromagnetic field, around a conductor
as illustrated in figure below.
Electromagnetic Field
When current passes through a conductor, an
electromagnetic field is created around the
conductor.
This magnetic field has no north or south pole.
Direction of Lines of Force
The direction of the lines of force surrounding a
conductor depend upon the direction of current flow.
The right-hand rule is used to determine the
direction of the lines of force.
If the conductor is grasped in the right hand, with the
thumb pointing in the direction of current flow, the
fingers of the right hand point in the direction of the
magnetic lines of force.
 Direction of the lines of force surrounding the
conductor.
Right-Hand Rule is an aid to remembering
the direction of the lines of the force as figure
below.
 1.7: Electrical safety

What if I stuck my finger in an

electrical outlet?

45
It is not the voltage but current that kills.

Current between 100 mA to 200 mA are

FATAL.

Anything in neighborhood of 10 mA is
capable of producing painful to severe shock

46
Physical effects of electric current. Values
vary depending on body mass

47
Safety precautions
Avoid contact with any voltage source. Turn power off before you work on
circuits when touching circuits parts is required
Remove rings, watches, and other metallic jewelry
Do not work on equipment until you know proper procedures and are aware
of potential hazards.
Make sure power cords are in good condition and grounding pins are not
missing or bent
Handle tools properly and maintain a neat working area
Never handles instruments when your hands are wet
Always use wires with insulation
If another person cannot let go of an energized conductor, switch the power
off immediately. If that is not possible, use any nonconductive material to try
to separate the body from the contact.
48
Lockout & Tagout

Electrical power must be removed when electrical equipment is

inspected, serviced, or repaired.

Lockout is the process of removing the source of electrical power and

installing a lock which prevents the power from being turned ON

Tagout is the process of placing a danger tag on the source of

electrical power which indicates that the equipment may not be
operated until the danger tag is removed.

49
Clothing & Personal Protective Equipment

Clothing should fit snugly to avoid danger of becoming entangled in

moving machinery or creating a tripping or stumbling hazard

50
1.8 Complex number:
Rectangular form
Horizontal axis called real axis

Vertical axis called imaginary axis

Figure: The complex plane
Representing a point on the
complex plane

Figure: Coordinate points on the complex plane

Introduction to Phasors
Phasors representing quantities that have
both magnitude and direction (angular
position).
Phasors are useful for representing sine
waves in terms of their magnitude and phase
angle
Angular position on the complex plane

Figure: Angles on the complex plane

Phasor Representation of a
Sine Wave
The instantaneous value of the sine wave at any
point is equal to the vertical distance from the tip of
the phasor to the horizontal axis.
 A phasor quantity is represented in rectangular form:
A + jB

Figure: Examples of phasors specified by rectangular

coordinates
Polar form
A phasor quantity is represented in polar form: C
+/-

Figure: Examples of phasors specified by polar values

Conversion from rectangular to
polar form
Visualized a phasor as triangle in the complex
plane.

Figure: Right angle relationships in the complex plane

Conversion from rectangular to
polar form
Converting from rectangular form (A+jB), to polar
form:
C = A2 + B2
= tan-1( B/A )
Conversion from rectangular to
polar form [Example]
a) 8 + j6
b) 10 j5
c) -12 j18
d) -7 +j10

Answers
e) C = 10 36.9o
f) C = 11.2 -26.6o
g) C = 21.6 -123.7o
h) C = 12.2 125o
Conversion from polar to
rectangular form

Converting from polar form (C) to rectangular

form:
A = C cos
B = C sin

A = C cos
B = C sin
C < = C cos + jC sin = A + jB
Conversion from polar to
rectangular form [example]
a) 10 30o
b) 200 -45o
c) 4 135o

Answers

d) A + jB = 8.66 + j5
e) A + jB = 141 j141
f) A + jB = -2.83 + j2.83
Mathematical operations
Addition must in rectangular form
(8 + j5) + (2 + j1) = (8 + 2) + j(5 + 1) = 10 + j6
(20 j10) + (12 + j6) = 32 j4

Subtraction must be in rectangular form

(3 + j4) (1+ j2) = (3 1) j(4 2) = 2 + j2
(15 + j15) (10 j8) = 5 + j23
1.7 Complex number:
Mathematical operations
Multiplication easier in polar form
(j x j = -1) & (j x j) = +1
(5 + j3) (2 j4) = 10 j20 + j6 + 12 = 22 j14
(10 45o) (5 20o) = (10 x 5) <(45 + 20) = 50 65o

Division easier in polar form

(10 + j5) / (2 + j4)
=[(10 + j5)(2 - j4)]/ [(2 + j4) )(2 - j4)] = (40-j30)/20
=2 j1.5
(100 50o) / (25 20o) = (100/25) < (50o 20o)

= 4 30o