AVTE 213 Conductivity

ELEMENTARY ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING (AC/DC)* - Conductivity measures how tightly bound
an electron is to an atom.
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY 1. Conductors
● Metals, mostly shiny and solid
Electricity ● Elements with high conductivity
- It is all around us, powering technology like ● Have very mobile electrons
our cell phones, computers, lights, soldering ● Materials which allow in electron flow
irons, and air conditioners. ● Some have malleable property if whack with
- A natural phenomenon that occurs a hammer they’ll flatten into a
throughout nature and takes many different ● thinner shape
forms. ● Examples:
- Defined as the flow of electric charge. o Copper
o Silver
o Gold
o Iron
Building Blocks of Atoms
o Chromium
- An atom is built with a combination of three o Aluminum
distinct particles / elements: 2. Insulators
o Electrons ● Non-metals
o Protons ● Elements with low conductivity
o Neutrons. ● Prevent the flow of electrons
- Each atom has a center nucleus. ● Examples:
o Nucleus is where the protons and o Glass
neutrons are densely packed o Rubber
together. o Plastic
- Surrounding the nucleus are a group of o Air
orbiting electrons. o Selenium
A. Protons o Sulfur
● Has at least one proton in every atom 3. Semiconductor
● Determines the atomic number of the atom ● Semi-metals
● Number of protons defines what chemical ● Shiny but when whack with a hammer it
element breaks into bits
● Balance state of an atom ● Conduct electricity, dull glow of the bulb
o Number of protons is the same with ● Examples
the number of electrons o Boron
● Always carry a positive charge o Silicon
B. Electrons o Germanium
● Critical to the workings of electricity.
● Always carry a negative charge.
● Valence electrons Creating Flow of Electrons
o The electrons on the outer orbit of
the atom which can escape and 1. Apply enough force to the valence electron.
become free. 2. The valence electron is ejected.
● Free Electrons 3. Free electron is created.
o Allow to move charge. 4. As free electron is floating, it is pulled and
C. Neutrons pushed by surrounding charges.
● Protons partner in nucleus. 5. The free electron eventually finds a new
● Purpose is to keep the protons in the nucleus atom to latch on to.
and determine the isotope of an atom. 6. In doing so, another valence electron is
● Neutral, they have no charge. ejected.
7. Now a new electron is drifting through
space looking for the same thing.
Electrostatic Force (Coulomb’s Law)
- Attraction between the nucleus and the Electricity
electron
- Pushes away other electrons and be attracted - Defined as the flow of electric charge.
to protons Forms of Electricity
- Tool, we need to make electrons flow
- States that “charges of the same type repel I. Static Electricity
each other while charges of opposite types
are attracted together”. Static Electricity
- Exists when there is a build-up of opposite
charges on objects separated by an
insulator.
 - Exists until the two groups of opposite
charges can find a path between each other
to balance the system out.
Static Discharge
- Occurs when the charges find a means of
equalizing.
- Can flow through even the best of insulators.
- Harmful.
- Results in a visible shock as the travelling
electrons collide with electrons in the air.
- Release energy in the form of light.
Ionization
- Note:
o Friction from different materials
transfer electrons
- Ions
o Atoms that carry a positive or
negative electric charge as a result of
having lost or gained free electrons.
- Ionization
o When an electron is taken from or
added to a neutral atom
- Positively charged
o Object losing electrons
o Positive ion (kation)
- Negatively charged
o Object gaining electrons
o Negative ion (anion)
II. Current/ Dynamic Electricity
- Exists when charges are able to constantly
flow.
- Requires a circuit.
o Circuit is a closed, never-ending
loop of conductive material.
- The stuff that powers electronic gadgets.
- Charges are always on the move.
 BUILDING BLOCKS OF ELECTRICITY o 10 Volts means that one Coulomb of
charge at the higher potential end can
Current do 10 Joules of work on its way
Current (I) down to the lower potential end
10𝐽
- The rate at which electrons flow past a point = 10𝑉
1𝐶
in a complete electrical circuit per second
- Unit: Ampere Voltage (V)
o Unit of measurement for current
- Also called Potential Difference, Potential,
1 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 =
1 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 EMF
1 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
- Electrical pressure
18 - Has potential to do work
1 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 6. 24×10 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
- Difference in charge between two points
Andre-Marie Ampere - The measure of the push on each electron
which makes the electron move
- French physicist and mathematician.
- One of the founders of the science of Alessandro Volta
classical electromagnetism. - Italian Physicist
2 Convections for Current Flow - Invented the first chemical battery

1. Electron Current Voltage Example

- Flow of electrons from low to high potential - In 1.5V battery, if 1 Coulomb of charge
- True flow of electrons came out of one side, it could do 1.5 Joules
- Negative to Positive of work before re-entering the other side of
2. Conventional Current the battery.
- Benjamin Franklin - If battery connected to a light bulb, each
o American scientist theorized that the Coulomb that came out of the top of the
positive charge flows from high to battery and went through the light bulb
low potentials. would give off 1.5J of light and heat before
- Positive to Negative it re-entered on the other side.

Resistance
Resistance (Ω)
- Opposition to current flow
- Acts to oppose motion and generate heat
- Limits the flow of electrons through a circuit
- Materials with tendency to resist the flow of
charge
Voltage - Unit: Ohm (Ω)
Electric Potential Energy (J) o The resistance between two points
where 1V of applied potential energy
- Stored energy of a circuit will push 1A of current.
- Describes how much stored energy a charge
1𝑉
has which can do work and become kinetic 1Ω = 1𝐴
when set into motion by an electrostatic
force
- Unit: Joules (J)
o Equal to the amount of energy Factors that Determine Resistance
transferred to an object when a force 1. The Material Itself
of 1 Newton is applied to that object ● Silver > Copper > Aluminum
over a distance of 1 meter. 2. Cross-Sectional Area
1𝐽 = 1𝑁 * 1𝑚 ● The end or tip of the wire you cut.
● Small cross-sectional area, higher resistance.
Electric Potential ● Large cross-sectional area, lower resistance.
3. Length
- The amount of electric potential energy ● Longer conductor, Higher resistance
divided by the amount of charge at any point ● Shorter Conductor, Lower Resistance
in the electric field. 4. Temperature
- Unit: Joules per Coulomb (J/C) ● Temperature increases, higher resistance
o Defined as a Volt (V) ● Cool wire, lower resistance
1𝐽
1𝑉 = 1𝐶

- Example:
George Ohm Yello
4 104 10000
w
- German physicist and mathematician
Green 5 105 100000
- 1825
o Experimented with early chemical Blue 6 106 1000000
batteries and thermocouples to Violet 7 107 10000000
produce voltages 10000000
Gray 8 108
- Determined Voltage and Current were 0
proportional 10000000
White 9 109
00
Gold ±5%
Silver ±10%
Resistor
Prefixes
Resistor
Scientifi
- A passive component since it only consumes Number Prefix Symbol c
power and can’t generate it Notation
- Electronic components which have a 1,000,000,000, 12
specific, never changing electrical resistance Tera T 1×10
000
9
Schematic Symbol 1,000,000,000 Giga G 1×10
6
1,000,000 Mega M 1×10
American Style International-Style
3
1,000 Kilo K 1×10
2
100 Hecto H 1 × 10
1
Types of Resistors 10 Deka Dk 1×10
−1
1. Through-Hole (Plated Through Hole 0.1 Deci d 1×10
[PTH]) 0.01 Centi c 1×10
−2
- Come with long pliable leads which can be −3
stuck into a breadboard or hand-soldered 0.001 Mili m 1×10
−6
into PCB 0.000,001 Micro µ 1×10
2. Surface-Mount (Surface-Mount Device or 0.000,000,001 Nano n −9
Technology [SMD/ SMT]) 1×10
- Tiny black rectangles, terminated on either 0.000,000,000, −12
Pico p 1×10
side with even smaller, shiny, silver, 001
conductive edges.
- Sit on top of PCBs, soldered in place by a
robot and sent through an oven where solder
melts.
- Advantages: mass circuit board protection,
space.
Decoding Resistor Markings
● 1st and 2nd Bands
o Indicate the two most significant
digits.
● 3rd Band
o Weight which multiplies the two
significant digits by the power of 10.
th
● 4 Band
o Indicates the tolerance.

Digit
Multipli Multiplie Toleran
Color Valu
er d Out ce
e
Black 0 100 1
Brow
1 101 10
n
Red 2 102 100
Oran
3 103 1000
ge
 OHM’S LAW & ELECTRICAL POWER - Potential difference across two points
multiplied by current running between them.
Ohm’s Law o P=V*A
Ohm’s Law
- Most common and most powerful single 1𝐽 1𝐶
relationship in the study of electricity. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 1𝑉 * 1𝐴 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 1𝑉→ 1𝐶
* 1𝐴→ 1𝑠
- Explains the basic interrelationship of 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
1𝐽
1𝑊 =
1𝐽
1𝑠 1𝑠
voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R).
- Formulated by Georg Simon Ohm
- States that in simple materials, the amount - It means how much energy is
of current through the material varies spent/transferred with respect to time
directly with the applied voltage and varies - Example:
inversely with the resistance of the material. o 900J/s = 900W
𝑉 o P = 3V*0.03A = 0.09W
𝐼= 𝑅
James Watt
- 1780s
- Scottish inventor.
- Greatly improved the design of the steamed
engine which helped bring about massive
advancements in the industrial revolution.
- Coined the term horsepower to compare
power of steamed engines with the power of
Example Problems: draft horses.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 James Prescott Joule
𝑉 = 4𝐴(50Ω)
𝑉 = 500𝑉 - First discovered the mathematical
relationship between power dissipation and
current through a resistance.
- The discovery was published in 1841
1. - Joule’s Law
𝑉 2 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
𝐼= 𝑅
𝑃 = 𝑅𝐼
2
80𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= 40Ω
𝑃= 𝑅
𝐼 = 2𝐴

2. Power Rating (Wattage Rating)

𝑉 Power Rating of a Resistor
𝑅= 𝐼
24𝑉 - Measure of its ability to give off unwanted
𝑅= 5𝐴 heat or to dissipate heat by the convection of
𝑅 = 48Ω air moving around the resistors.
- A bigger resistor comes in contact with
3. more air, it can handle more power, and thus
has a higher power rating.
- 2W carbon resistor is about 1 in long with a
¼ in diameter.
Power 1/4W resistor is about 0.25 in long with a
Power (W) diameter of 0.1 in.
- The power rating of a resistor is the power
- Rate at which work is done of the resistor that can be operated without
- Rate at which heat is generated overheating.
- Unit: Watt (W)
- Example:
o 60W electric drill can drill through a Power Rating of an Appliance
2-inch board in about ten seconds,
but a 200W drill can do it much - Rate at which it is using electrical energy to
faster. do the work for us.
- Horsepower (hp)
o What large electric motors and
automobile engines are rated, equal
to 746W.
1ℎ𝑝 = 746𝑊
Sample Problem:
1. 100Ω resistor, ¼W (.25W) power rating,
.25in long, 0.1in diameter Question: Will
this resistor not overheat if the voltage
source is 9V?
Computation:
𝑉 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝐼= 𝑅
9𝑉 𝑃 = 9𝑉×0. 09𝐴
𝐼= 100Ω 𝑃 = 0. 81𝑊
𝐼 = 0. 09𝐴
- 0.81W power dissipation in the circuit is
higher than the maximum 0.25W power
rating of the given resistor.
- Therefore, the resistor in this circuit would
most likely fail from overheating.
- Recommended to do is to pick the next
larger available size, 1W in this case.
2. A toaster takes 10A the 120V power line.
How much power is used?
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃 = 120𝑉×10𝐴
𝑃 = 1200𝑊 𝑜𝑟 1. 2𝑘𝑊
3. Calculate the power in a circuit where the
source of 100V produces 2A in a 50Ω
resistor?
2 2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑃 =𝐼 𝑅 𝑉
𝑃= 𝑅
𝑃 = 100×2𝐴 2
𝑃 = 2𝐴 ×50Ω 100𝑉
2
𝑃 = 200𝑊 𝑃 = 50Ω
𝑃 = 200𝑊
𝑃 = 200𝑊

- If a 12Ω resistor is carrying a current of

2.5A, how much is its voltage?
o 5.48 V
- How much current is needed for a 600W,
120V toaster?
o 5A
- How much voltage is needed for a 24Ω
resistance that dissipates 600W?
o 25 V
 SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY - Aircraft alternators require battery power to
stimulate a magnetic field and provide
1. Friction current throughout the airplane’s engine.
- Produces static electricity by the action of - While the primary responsibility of the
friction between two terminals. battery is to start the airplane engine, an
2. Chemical Action aircraft alternator’s primary responsibilities
- Produced by batteries. are to supply electrical power to all vital
3. Heat Action equipment on the airplane and to recharge
- Two dissolution metals bonded the battery.
(thermocouple) together in a junction when IV. Transformer Rectifier Unit
heated exhibit a difference of potential. - Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU)
- Produces Thermoelectricity combines the functions of a Transformer and
4. Light Action a Rectifier into one unit.
- Ability of lights energy (sunlight/artificial - In aircraft applications, the TRU converts
illumination) to free electrons from the the 120V AC power generated by the engine
atoms of the semi-conductor (photocells) or APU generators or provided by a Ground
material. Power Unit (GPU) to 28V DC power for use
- Produces Photo-electricity. by various electrical components.
5. Pressure V. Inverters
- Squeezing or stretching certain crystal, such - Inverters convert an aircraft's direct current
as quartz. (DC), typically from the main bus, into an
- Produces Piezo-electricity. alternating current (AC), usable for other
6. Mechanical Action electronic needs.
- Produced by rotating machines (generators) - The converted AC is usually a 24-volt
working with the use of magnets. system for aircraft that combines the use of
- Found in automobiles, hand cranks and foot appropriate transformers, switching and
pedals. control circuits.
- Generators are turned by: VI. Batteries
o waterpower - Aircraft batteries are usually identified by
o gas engines the material used for the plates.
o steam engines - Most common types of battery used:
o electric motors o Vented or sealed Lead-Acid Batteries
o Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries.
- Most small private aircraft use lead-acid
batteries. Most commercial and corporate
aircraft use Nickel-Cadmium batteries.
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY IN AIRCRAFT - Other battery types:
I. AC Generators o Nickel Metal Hydride
- The AC generator uses the rotation of the o Lithium-Ion.
aircraft’s engine to spin multiple loops of - Choosing the battery best suited for a
conducting wire in a magnetic field. particular aircraft depends on several
- Alternating current is generated in the wire characteristics, such as weight, cost, shelf
(armature) due to electromagnetic induction. life, charging or discharge rates, and
- The workings of a generator are best maintenance requirements.
described using a single loop of rotating - The differences in battery type use are
wire as an example. significant, so changing to a new battery
- This can then be extrapolated to multiple type may be viewed as a major alteration.
loops as is the case in a functional generator.
II. DC Generator
- DC generators produce direct current and
are typically found on light aircraft.
- In many cases, DC generators have been Aircraft Battery Inspection and Maintenance
replaced with DC alternators. - The main reason batteries fail is that they are
- Both devices produce electrical energy to not regularly maintained.
power the aircraft’s electrical loads and - If the battery connections, water level, or the
charge the aircraft’s battery. charge state are only checked at the annual
- Even though they share the same purpose, inspection, battery failure will be likely.
the DC alternator and DC generator are very - Regular maintenance is necessary to
different. preserve the usefulness and performance of
III. Alternator the battery.
- Aircraft alternators are the source of - Battery inspection and maintenance
electrical power in an aircraft. procedures and intervals can vary with the
- In comparison to airplane generators, type of chemical composition, the type of
airplane alternators have a much smoother physical construction and the temperature at
electrical output and can be brought to a which the batteries are stored.
higher speed much more quickly. - All maintenance should be done by
following the battery manufacturer’s
 recommendations contained in the Shape
maintenance manual.
- The mechanical integrity of the battery - Batteries came in many sizes and shapes
needs to be inspected regularly. Examples:
- This involves visually checking the battery ● AA refers a specific shape
for any physical damage, checking for and style
corrosion or oxidation at the battery Primary (Disposable) vs. Secondary
connections, and ensuring that the battery is (Rechargeable)
properly connected.
- The battery cables can get hot if they are - Primary batteries have a lower discharge
loose or the connections are dirty and do not rate
allow a tight fit. Energy Density
- Determined by combining capacity with
shape and size of a battery
BATTERY
Internal Discharge Rate
- The rate at which the battery discharges
Battery
itself over time
- It is a device consisting of one or more
Safety
electrochemical cells with external
conditions provided to power electrical - Batteries technologies are designed to
devices such as flashlights, smartphones, discharge safely in the event of misuse
and electric cards. - Have safety circuits built-in to prevent
- It is a device that produces electrons through damage
electrochemical reactions, and contains
positive (anode) and negative (cathode)
terminals
Alessandro Volta
Types of Battery
- In 1800, Volta created the first modern day
● Primary/Non-Rechargeable Battery
battery when he built what came to be
● Secondary/Rechargeable Battery
known as his voltaic pile.
- The pile was made up of zinc and copper
plates with vinegar- or brine-dampened
pieces of leather or pasteboard placed in I. Primary Battery
between each plate. - Designed to be used once and discarded
- In general, the electrochemical reaction
occurring in the cell is not reversible,
rendering the cell non rechargeable.
- The active materials do not go back to their
original forms. These battery types are
normally used in portable devices, which
require minimal current drain.

a. Button/Coin Cell Battery

- Great for very small, lower
power projects
Capacity - Find hidden inside remote
- Amount of power it contains controls, electronic tealight,
- Amount of current they can output over time candles, and lots of smaller
Example: 1000mAh, 2000mAH disposable devices
- Very small and very light,
Nominal Cell Voltage great for small, low-power
devices.
- Average voltage a cell outputs when charged - Safe, long shelf life and fairly
- Depends on the chemical reaction behind it inexpensive unit
Example: - L – alkaline
● Lead-acid car battery will - C – Lithium
output 12V - Examples:
● Lithium coin cell battery will ● CR2032 – Lithium
output 3V battery (3V nominal
voltage) measuring
20mm diameter
3.2mm tall
 ● LR1154 (aka LR44) – combine the benefits of the
alkaline (1.5V popular alkaline cells with
nominal voltage) the added benefit of reuse
measuring 11mm after recharging.
across and 5.4mm tall c. Nickel-Cadmium Battery
b. Mercury Battery - Consist of Nickel Hydroxide
- Use a reaction between in the positive electrode and
mercuric oxide and zinc Cadmium in the negative
electrodes in an alkaline electrode as well as
electrolyte. Potassium Hydroxide
c. Mercury Battery electrolyte.
- Composed of silver-oxide - Can supply extremely high
used as the positive electrode, currents and can be recharged
and zinc used as the negative rapidly due to low internal
electrode. resistance and very good
d. Zinc Air Battery conducting properties.
- Metal-air batteries powered d. Nickel Metal Hydride Battery
by oxidizing zinc with - Consists of nickel hydroxide
oxygen from the air. in the positive electrode and a
e. Lithium Battery hydrogen storing metal alloy
- Mainly used in small formats in the negative electrode as
(coins cells up to about AA well as potassium hydroxide
size) because bigger sizes electrolyte.
pose safety concern e. Lead Acid Battery
f. Carbon-Zinc Battery - Supplies electrical current to
- They provide only very low a motor vehicle.
power, but have a good shelf - Main purpose is to feed the
life and are well suited for starter, which starts the
flashlights, clocks and other engine. Once the engine is
devices. running, power for the car's
- The cheapest, ordinary, electrical systems is supplied
everyday batteries. by the alternator.
g. Alkaline Battery - Use 6 series-connected cells
- They store more energy and to provide nominal 12V
last longer, which is why they system or 12 cells for 24V
cost more. system in heavy trucks
- Cheap, safe to use, and
available everywhere
- Provides more power-per-use How Battery Works?
than Carbon-Zinc battery
- Batteries have three parts, an anode (-), a
cathode (+), and the electrolyte. The cathode
II. Secondary Battery and anode (the positive and negative sides at
- Can be recharged for reuse. either end of a traditional battery) are
- They are usually assembled with active hooked up to an electrical circuit. The
materials in the discharged state. chemical reactions in the battery cause a
- Rechargeable batteries can be recharged by buildup of electrons at the anode.
applying electric current, which reverses the - The chemical reactions in the battery cause a
chemical reactions that occur during its use. buildup of electrons at the anode. This
results in an electrical difference between
the anode and the cathode. You can think of
a. Lithium-Ion battery this difference as an unstable build-up of the
- Lithium ions move from the electrons. The electrons want to rearrange
negative electrode to the themselves to get rid of this difference. But
positive electrode during they do this in a certain way. Electrons repel
discharge and back when each other and try to go to a place with
charging. fewer electrons.
- The electrolyte, which allows - In a battery, the only place to go is to the
for ionic movement, and the cathode. But, the electrolyte keeps the
two electrodes are the electrons from going straight from the anode
constituent components of a to the cathode within the battery. When the
lithium-ion battery cell circuit is closed (a wire connects the cathode
b. Alkaline battery and the anode) the electrons will be able to
- Their cycle life is less than get to the cathode. In the picture above, the
most other secondary electrons go through the wire, lighting the
batteries, but they are a great light bulb along the way. This is one way of
consumer’s choice as they
 describing how electrical potential causes Lead Acid vs Nickel Cadmium
electrons to flow through the circuit.
- However, these electrochemical processes Lead Acid Nickel
change the chemicals in anode and cathode Cadmium
to make them stop supplying electrons. So
there is a limited amount of power available Internal High Internal Low Internal
in a battery. Resistance Resistance Resistance
- When you recharge a battery, you change Voltage per cell 2.1V per cell 1.55-1.80V
the direction of the flow of electrons using per cell
another power source, such as solar panels.
The electrochemical processes happen in Type of Engine Reciprocating Turbine
reverse, and the anode and cathode are Used For Engine Engine
restored to their original state and can again
provide full power. Type of 30% Sulfuric 30%
Electrolyte Acid Potassium
70% Water Hydroxide
70% Water
Method of Charging
● Constant Current Charging
Battery of an Aircraft
● Constant Voltage Charging

I. Constant Current Charging

- The most effective way to charge a
battery.
- The amount of ampere-hour used to
charge the battery is 7% of the
battery ampere hour rating
- Ex: if we are charging a 40 ampere
hour battery then it should be
charged by 2.8 ampere
- (40 amp-hour*.07= 2.8 amps)
* As the battery begins to charge, the
no load voltage increases, therefore,
the voltage during constant current MAGNETS
must be varied in order to maintain a Magnets
constant current throughout the
charge. - A body having the property of polarity and
of attraction and repulsion found in the
* Therefore a constant current nature of the Lodestone
charger requires more time to - Has at least two opposite poles (North and
complete and additional attention. South)
II. Constant Voltage Charging - Lodestone – naturally magnetized piece of
- The generator in a/c charges the battery in a the mineral magnetite which can attract
constant voltage method. irons\
- The state of charge of the battery determines - With magnetic properties
the amount of current that flows into the ● Iron (Paper Clip, Screws)
battery. ● Nickel
- Ex: the low voltage of a discharge battery ● Cobalt
allows a large amount of current to flow Law of Magnetism
when charge first begins
- Charging the battery in shop by this method - Opposite poles attract or pull together
is often used, but when the charger is first - Similar poles push each other apart
connected it well overheat the battery, so
Magnetic Field
care must be taken
- Constant voltage charging does not fully - Also called Field of Force
charge a battery - Region where all magnetic substances are
- You can connect several batteries by detected or influenced
constant voltage through connecting them in - Represented by Magnetic Field Lines
parallel ● Strongest when lines are bunched
closely together
● North Pole to the South Poles
 Classes of Magnets
I. Natural Magnets
- Iron ores called magnetite discovered
centuries ago near Magnesia in Asia Minor
- Example: Lodestone

II. Permanent Magnets

- Bars or hardened steel which have been
permanently magnetized
- Example: Neodymium Iron Boron

III. Electromagnets
- Iron cores wound with a coil or insulated
wire. When electricity flows through the
coil, the core is magnetized and when the
flow ceases the core loses its artificial
magnets.

Electromagnetism
- Relationship between electricity and
magnetism.
Hans Christian Oersted
- Danish scientist
- Discovered in summer of 1820 that a
magnetic field appears when electricity
flows
Electromagnet

- Magnet that gets magnetism from electricity

- Can be created by wrapping a large coil of
wire around the magnetic material like iron
- Can easily turn on or off unlike permanent
magnet
- Used around you in everyday devices like
motors, doorbells and speakers
Facts
- Electron carries with it a negative electric
charge
- Moving electric charge creates a magnetic
field
- Moving magnetic field can generate an
electric current in wire
- The direction of the electricity flow through
the coil determines the polarity of the
electromagnet
- The more turns in the coil and the higher the
flow of current through it, the stronger the
magnetic force that is generated
 GENERAL ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT 4. Stranded Wire
COMPOSITION
- Stranded wire consists of multiple
small wires bundled or wrapped
together. Stranded wire is more
Types of Wire flexible and has a higher resistance
● Solid to metal fatigue than solid wire.
● Fuse Wire
● Magnet Wire
● Stranded
● Litz Wire
● Tinsel Wire
● Braided
● Wire Harness

1. Solid Wire 5. Litz Wire

- Solid wire, also known as solid-core
or single-strand wire, is made up of - Litz wire is a type of stranded wire
one piece of metal wire, usually used in electronics to carry
surrounded by protective sheathing. alternating current (AC) at radio
It is often used for circuit breadboard frequencies. It is composed of many
wiring. thin wire strands, individually
insulated and twisted together, often
involving several levels.

2. Fuse Wire
- Fuse wire has a low resistance to
allow normal current to pass safely 6. Tinsel Wire
through it, but if there is a short
- Tinsel wire is a type of electrical
circuit that causes a higher voltage
wire that is far more resistant to
current to pass through it, the fuse
metal fatigue than solid wire or other
wire can’t withstand the heat, so it
kinds of stranded wire.
melts and breaks the circuit.

3. Magnet Wire
- Magnet wire, also known as 7. Braided Wire
enameled wire, is a solid wire, - Braided wire is composed of
usually made of copper, which is multiple small strands of wire that
insulated with a very thin coating, are braided together.
rather than the thicker plastic or
other insulation commonly used on
electrical wire, to allow it to be very
tightly coiled. These tight coils are
used for applications such as
inductors, transformers, motors,
electromagnets, and speakers

8. Wire Harness
- Wire harnesses are bundles of wires
or cables and can have many
different types of exterior binding
materials, i.e. braids, expandable
 sleeving, military lacing, spinal begins to reach unsafe levels, the magnetic
wrap, and tie wraps. Wire harnesses force of the solenoid is strong enough to
simplify the task of installing and move a metal lever in the switch
organizing electrical systems. mechanism, which then breaks the current
and stops the flow of electricity.

Transformer
Switch - Transformer, device that transfers electric
energy from one alternating-current circuit
An electrical switch is any device used to to one or more other circuits, either
interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit. Switches increasing (stepping up) or reducing
are essentially binary devices: they are either (stepping down) the voltage.
completely on (“closed”) or completely off - Working Principle of Transformer:
(“open”). ● The working principle of a
transformer is very simple. Mutual
induction between two or more
windings (also known as coils)
allows for electrical energy to be
transferred between circuits.
● Say you have one winding (also
Differences Between Relay and Contactor known as a coil) which is supplied
by an alternating electrical source.
● Relays are used to control contacts of The alternating current through the
an electrical circuit due to a change winding produces a continually
of parameters or conditions in the changing and alternating flux that
same circuit or any other associated surrounds the winding.
circuit. ● If another winding is brought close
● Contactors, on the other hand, are to this winding, some portion of this
used to interrupt or establish alternating flux will link with the
connections in an electrical circuit second winding. As this flux is
repeatedly under different continually changing in its amplitude
conditions. and direction, there must be a
changing flux linkage in the second
winding or coil.

Fuse
- With electricity flowing, the fuse allows the
power to pass across the filament and Electric Motor
between the related circuits. When an
overload occurs, the metal filament will melt - An electric motor is an electrical machine
and the flow of electricity is stopped. that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Most electric motors
operate through the interaction between the
motor's magnetic field and electric current in
a wire winding to generate force in the form
of torque applied on the motor's shaft. An
electric generator is mechanically identical
to an electric motor, but operates with a
Circuit Breaker reversed flow of power, converting
- When the power is turned on, the breaker mechanical energy into electrical energy.
allows the power to pass from the bottom
terminal to the upper terminal. If the current
Generator
- In electricity generation, a generator is a
device that converts motive power
(mechanical energy) into electrical power
for use in an external circuit. Sources of
mechanical energy include steam turbines,
gas turbines, water turbines, internal
combustion engines, wind turbines and even
hand cranks.

Electrical Measuring Instruments

a. Ohm Meter - ohmmeter, instrument for
measuring electrical resistance, which is
expressed in ohms.

b. Volt Meter - this device has a function to

measure the amount of voltage of an electric
current flowing per second.

c. Ammeter - This tool serves to measure the

electric voltage current in a closed circuit.

d. Watt Meter - The watt meter has a function

to measure direct current power.