BITUMINOUS MIX DESIGN

OBJECTIVES
 OBJECTIVE

It is to determine a cost effective blend and

gradation of aggregates and bitumen that yields a
mix having:
Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement

. Sufficient mix stability to satisfy the demands of

traffic without distortion or displacement

Sufficient voids in the total compacted mix to allow

for a slight amount of bitumen expansion due to
temperature increases without flushing, bleeding,
and loss of stability
 Minimum void content to limit the permeability of harmful air
and moisture into the mix

Sufficient workability to permit efficient placement of the mix without

segregation and without sacrificing stability and performance

For surface mixes, proper aggregate texture or hardness to provide

sufficient skid resistance in unfavourable weather conditions

The final goal of mix design is to select a unique bitumen content

that will achieve a balance among all the desired properties
DURABILITY OF BITUMINOUS MIX
 Durability of Bituminous Mix

Durability of bituminous mix refers to the ability of

the mixture to retain the original properties

These include the resistance to load and abrasion

Resistance to load can be impaired when:

.
(i) The bitumen becomes hard and brittle and thus
cannot withstand strains without fracturing

(ii) The bitumen debonds from the aggregate (truly

strips) causing the surface to lose strength and
subsequently crack and disintegrate
Durability of bituminous mix is also refers to the ability of
the mixture to resist abrasion of the surface due to
scraping action of tires combined with water

The surface is more susceptible to abrasion if:

(i) the void content is high allowing air and water to

prematurely harden the bitumen

(ii) incompatibility between aggregate and bitumen,

making it easier to strip bitumen from the aggregate

(iii) the asphalt film thickness is not sufficient to protect

the mix from the abrasive action of tires and water
 Asphalt Film
Thickness

One of the key elements in the durability and moisture

susceptibility of an bitumen mixture is bitumen film
thickness

Bitumen film thickness describes the dimension of the

bitumen coating of the aggregate particles

A thin bitumen coating on aggregate particles is one of

the primary causes of premature aging of the bitumen
and is one definition of lack of durability
Fig. ?
ILLUSTRATING BULK,EFFECTIVE, & APPARENT SPECIFIC
GRAVITIES; AIR VOIDS; AND EFFECTIVE BITUMEN
CONTENT IN COMPACTED MIXTURE
Inadequate film thickness of bitumen can create a lack
of cohesion between aggregate particles and would
create a dry mix

Also, if the bitumen film is too thin, air which enters the
compacted bituminous mix can more rapidly oxidize the
bitumen, causing the pavement to become brittle

Additionally, if the aggregates are hydrophilic, thin

bitumen films are more easily and rapidly penetrate by
water than thick ones, causing stripping or deboning of
bitumen from the aggregate
Bitumen film thickness is measured in microns

It can be calculated by dividing the effective volume

of bitumen by the total estimated surface area of the
aggregate particles

Film thickness has been shown to be a function of

size distribution, particle shape, and the amount of
bitumen in the mix
According to Aljassar and Haas, the bitumen film
thickness can be determined using the formula stated
below by knowing the approximate surface area of an
aggregate gradation

AT= as x N = (6Ws)/(Gsb x w x d)

Where: AT= Total surface area of all aggregate particles

(m2)
as = Surface area of an aggregate particle (m2)
N = Number of aggregate particles
Ws = Mass of aggregate (kg)
Gsb = Specific gravity of the aggregate
w = Density of water (assume 1000 kg/m3)
d = Diameter of aggregate particle (m)
According to Hveem at the California DOT

The film thickness can be estimated knowing surface area of the

aggregate. This formulae provides only an estimation of the
average film thickness on an aggregate particle

TF = Vbe/ (AT x Ws) x 304800

Where: TF= Average film thickness, microns

Vbe = Volume of effective bitumen (ft3)
AT= Surface area of the aggregate (ft2/lb of
aggregate)
Ws = Mass of aggregate (lb)
(304 800 is a conversion factor used to express TF in microns)
MOISTURE SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING

The susceptibility of bituminous mixtures to moisture is

another measure of durability of bituminous mixture

Lottman test (ASTM D 4867) is commonly adopted for

evaluating moisture susceptibility and stripping of
bituminous mixture
 Effective Bitumen?

The quantity of bitumen on the aggregate surface

excluding the absorbed into the aggregate particle is
defined as the effective bitumen

Effective bitumen can be calculated by subtracting the

% bitumen absorption from the total bitumen content

In order to ensure durable flexible pavements, it is

necessary to design mixes with adequate film thickness
for which determination of effective bitumen is
necessary
 MOISTURE SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING

Test Procedure:

Six specimens are to be compacted to 7 1 % air voids

The six specimens are divided into two groups of three so that the
average air void content of the group are approximately equal
One group is tested dry and the other is tested after a period of
moisture conditioning
The conditioning consists of vacuum saturating the specimens to
between 55 to 80% saturation
They are then placed in a 600C water bath for 24 hours followed by a
250C bath for 1 hour
Indirect tensile strength is then determined for the dry and wet
samples
 Moisture susceptibility is reported as a tensile strength ratio
(TSR) which is calculated using eqn:

TSR = (Stm)/Std x 100

where, Stm = Average tensile strength of the moisture-

conditioned samples, kPa

Std = Average tensile strength of the dry samples, kPa

The bituminous mixture properties can be improved by increasing

film thickness, reducing air voids, and minimizing the use of the
use of marginal aggregate sources
 DESIGN METHODS

MARSHALL
HVEEM METHOD
METHOD

MODIFIED
HUBBARD-FILD
METHOD
 All mix design procedures involve preparing a set of trial mixture
specimens using materials proposed for use on the project

An estimation of the standard procedures will indicate that there are three
key components of mix design

(i) Laboratory compaction of trial mix specimens

(ii) Stability (or strength) and volumetric testing, and

(iii) Analysis of results

An additional step that is becoming more common is the evaluation of

moisture susceptibility or the compatibility of the aggregate and the
bitumen
The laboratory compaction technique is intended to
simulate the in-place density of bituminous mix after
it has endured several years of traffic

Four compaction methods are currently in use:

Impact compaction, used in the Marshall mix

design method

Kneading compaction, used in the Hveem mix

design method

Several form of gyratory compaction

Compaction using vibratory impact hammers

 There are several guidelines for adjusting the trial
mix but it may not necessarily apply in all cases
Voids Low, Stability Low:-
Voids may be increased in no. of ways

As a general approach to obtaining higher voids in the mineral

aggregate the aggregate grading should be adjusted by adding
more coarse or more fine aggregate

It must be remembered, however, that lowering the bitumen

content may decrease the durability of the pavement

Too much reducing in bitumen content may lead to brittleness,

accelerated oxidation, and increased permeability
If the above adjustments do not produce a stable mix, the
aggregate may have to be change
Stability & void content of the mix may be increased by
increasing the amount of crushed materials and / or decreasing
the amount of material passing the 75
Voids Low, Stability Satisfactory:-

Low void content may eventually result in instability due to

plastic flow or flushing after the pavement has been exposed
to traffic for a period of time because of particle re-orientation
and additional compaction

Insufficient void may also result because of inadequate

bitumen content in finer mixes even though stability is
initially satisfactory for specific traffic, however, durability will
be affected

For these reasons, mixes low in voids should be adjusted by

increasing or decreasing coarse & fine aggregates
Voids Satisfactory, Stability Low:-

Low stability when voids and aggregate grading

are satisfactory may indicate some deficiencies in
the aggregate

Consideration should be given to improving the

coarse particle shape by crushing or increasing the
%age of coarse aggregate in the mixture, or
possibly increasing the maximum aggregate size

Aggregate particles with rougher texture and less

rounded surfaces will exhibit more stability while
maintaining or increasing the void content
Voids High, Stability Satisfactory:-

High voids contents are frequently associated with the mixes

found to have high permeability

High permeability, by permitting circulation of air and water

through the pavement may lead to premature hardening of
the bitumen

Even though stabilities are satisfactory, adjustment should be

made to reduce the voids

Small reduction may be accomplished by increasing the

mineral dust content of the mix

It may be necessary to select or combine aggregates to a

gradation which is closer to the maximum density grading
curve
Voids High, Stability Low:-

Two steps may be necessary when the voids are

high and stability is low

First voids are adjusted by the method discussed

above

If this adjustment does not also improve the

stability

The second step should be a consideration of

aggregate quality as discussed in first & second
cases
 MARSHALL METHOD OF MIX DESIGN

This method is applicable only to bituminous mixtures

containing aggregates with max sizes of 25 mm or
less

A modified Marshall method has been proposed for

aggregates with maximum sizes up to 38 mm

Steps preliminary to specimen preparation are:

(i) All materials proposed for use meet the physical

requirements of the project specifications
(ii) Aggregate blend combinations meet the gradation
requirements of the project specifications
(iii) For performing density and voids analyses, the
bulk sp gr of all aggregates used in the blend and
sp gr of the bitumen are determined
PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS

At least 3 specimens for each combination of

aggregates and bitumen content

Preparation of aggregates

Determination of mixing & compaction

temperature

Preparation of mixtures

Packing the mold

Compaction of specimens
BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION

This test is performed according to ASTM D 1188 &

ASTM D 2726

STABILITY & FLOW

DENSITY & VOID ANALYSIS

CORRECTION FACTORS FOR STABILITY VALUES
 DETERMINATION OF PRELIMINARY DESIGN BITUMEN
CONTENT

The design bitumen content of the bituminous mixture

is selected by considering all of the design
parameters

As an initial starting point, choosing the bitumen

content at the median of the present air voids limits,
which is four percent

All of the calculated and measured mix properties at

this bitumen content should then be evaluated by
comparing them to the mix design criteria as specified
in MORT&H Cl. 500

If all of the design criteria are met, then this is the

preliminary design bitumen content if not some
adjustment is necessary or mix is redesign
 SELECTION OF FINAL MIX DESIGN

The final selected mix design is usually the most

economical one that will satisfactorily meet all of the
established criteria

The design bitumen content should be a compromise

selected to balance all of the properties. Normally, the
mix design criteria will produce a narrow range of
accept bitumen contents that pass all of the
guidelines as shown by the example in Fig.
Narrow range of acceptable bitumen contents
Voids in Mineral
Aggregate
(VMA)

It is the volume of intergranular void space b/w the

aggregate particles of a compacted paving mixture

It includes the air voids and the volume of the bitumen

not absorbed into the aggregate

VMA can also be described that the portion of space in

a compacted bitumen pavement or specimen which is
not occupied by the aggregate

It is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of

the mix
IILUSTRATION OF VMA
When aggregate particles are coated with bitumen, a
portion of the bitumen is absorbed into the aggregate

The remainder of the bitumen binder forms a film on the

outside of the individual aggregate particles

Since the aggregate particles do not consolidate to form

a solid mass, air pockets also appear within the
bitumen-aggregate mixture

Therefore, the four general components of bituminous

mix are: aggregate, absorbed bitumen, bitumen not
absorbed into the aggregate (effective bitumen content),
and air

Air and effective bitumen, when combined, are defined

as VMA
 EVALUATION OF VMA CURVE

In many cases, the most difficult mix design property to

achieve is a minimum amount of voids in the mineral
aggregate

The goal is to furnish enough space for the bitumen so it

can provide adequate adhesion to bind the aggregate
particles, but without bleeding when temperature rise and
the bitumen expands

Normally, the curve exhibits a flattened U-shape, decreasing

to a minimum value and then increasing with increasing
bitumen content shown in Fig. 5.7 (a)

It is recommended that bitumen contents on the wet or

right hand increasing side of this VMA curve be avoided,
even if the minimum air void and VMA criteria is met

Design bitumen content in this range have a tendency to

bleed and or exhibit plastic flow when placed in the field
Relationship between VMA & Specification limit
Any amount of additional compaction from traffic leads to
inadequate room for bitumen expansion, loss of aggregate
to-aggregate contact, and eventually, rutting and shoving in
high traffic areas

Ideally, the design bitumen content should be selected

slightly to the left of the low point of the VMA curve,
provided none of the other mixture criteria are violated

When the bottom of the U-shaped curve falls below the

minimum criteria level required for the nominal maximum
aggregate size of the mix. This is an indication that changes
to the job-mix-formula are necessary

Specifically, the aggregate grading should be modified to

provide additional VMA
Minimum % voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)
 EFFECT OF AIR VOIDS

It should be emphasized that the design range of air

voids (3 to 5%) is the level desired after several years
of traffic

The air voids after the construction is about 8%

The bituminous mixtures that ultimately consolidate to

less than 3% air voids can be expected to rut and
shove, if placed in heavy traffic locations

Problem can occur if the final air content is above 5%

or if the pavement is constructed with over 8% air
voids initially. Brittleness, premature cracking,
raveling, and stripping are all possible under these
conditions (Fig. 5.8)
Effect of Marshall compactive effort on VMA and air
voids
 EFFECT OF VOIDS FILLED WITH BITUMEN
The main effect of the VFB criteria is to limit maximum
levels of VMA and subsequently, maximum levels of bitumen
content

VFB also restricts the allowable air void content for mixes
that are near the minimum VMA criteria

Mix designed for lower traffic volumes will not pass the VFB
criteria with a relatively high % air voids (5%) even though
air void criteria range is met. The purpose is to avoid less
durable mixes in light traffic situations.

Mix designed for heavy traffic will not pass the VFB criteria
with relatively low % air voids (less than 3.5%) even though
that amount of air voids is within the acceptable range

Because low air voids contents can be very critical in terms

of permanent deformation

The VFB criteria helps to avoid those mixes that would be

susceptible to rutting
The VFB criteria helps to avoid those mixes that would be
susceptible to rutting in heavy traffic situations

The VFB criteria provide an additional factor of safety in the

design and construction process in terms of performance
 MODIFIED MARSHALL METHOD FOR LARGE
AGGREGATE
This method has been developed by Kandhal of the National
Centre for Bitumen Technology for mixes composed of
aggregates with maximum size up to 38 mm

The procedure is basically the same as the original method

except for these differences that are due to the larger
specimen size that is used:

(a) The hammer weights 10.2 kg and has a 149.4.mm flat

tamping face. Only mechanical operated device is used
for the same 457 mm drop height

(b) The specimen has a 152.4 mm dia by 95.2 mm ht

(c) The batch weights are typically 4 kg

(d) The equipment for compacting and testing are

proportionately larger to accommodate the larger
specimens
(e) The number of blows needed for the larger specimen is
1.5 times (112 blows) that required of the smaller specimen
(50 or 75 blows) to obtain equivalent compaction

(f) The minimu stability should be 2.25 times and the range
of flow values should be 1.5 times the same criteria for the
normal-sized specimens

(g) Similar to the normal procedure, these value should be

used to convert the measure stability values to an
equivalent value for a specimen with a 95.2 mm thickness, if
the actual size varies, the following table should be used as
C.F.
C.F. FOR MODIFIED MARSHALL METHOD FOR LARGE
AGGREGATE
Design steps for a rational design of a bituminous
mix

1. Selection of aggregate
2. Selection of aggregate grading
3. Determination of specific gravity
4. Preparation of specimen
5. Determination of specific gravity of compacted
bituminous mix
6. Stability test on compacted bituminous mix
7. Selection of Optimum Bitumen Content
The optimum bitumen content for the mix design is
found by taking the average value of the following
three bitumen contents found from the graphs:

1. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum

stability

2. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum

unit weight

3. Bitumen content corresponding to the median

of design of designed limits of % air voids in
total mix
GRAPHS