N.

Sivakugan
James Cook University, Australia
Duration = 15 mins.

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 Elements of Earth

8-35 km crust % by weight in crust

O = 49.2
Si = 25.7 82.4%
Al = 7.5
Fe = 4.7
Ca = 3.4
Na = 2.6
K = 2.4
Mg = 1.9
other = 2.6
12500 km dia
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 Soil Formation

Parent Rock

Residual soil Transported soil

~ in situ weathering (by ~ weathered and
physical & chemical transported far away
agents) of parent rock
by wind, water and ice.
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 Parent Rock

~ formed by one of these three different processes

igneous sedimentary metamorphic

formed by cooling of formed by gradual formed by alteration

molten magma (lava) deposition, and in layers of igneous &
e.g., limestone, shale sedimentary rocks by
e.g., granite pressure/temperature

e.g., marble
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 Residual Soils

Formed by in situ weathering of parent rock

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 Transported Soils

Transported by: Special name:

wind Aeolian
sea (salt water) Marine
lake (fresh water) Lacustrine
river Alluvial
ice Glacial
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 Basic Structural Units
Clay minerals are made of two distinct structural
units.
hydroxyl or
oxygen oxygen

aluminium or
silicon magnesium

0.26 nm
0.29 nm

Silicon tetrahedron Aluminium Octahedron

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 Tetrahedral Sheet
Several tetrahedrons joined together form a
tetrahedral sheet.

tetrahedron

hexagonal
hole

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 Tetrahedral & Octahedral Sheets

For simplicity, lets represent silica tetrahedral sheet by:

Si

and alumina octahedral sheet by:

Al

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 Different Clay Minerals
Different combinations of tetrahedral and octahedral
sheets form different clay minerals:

1:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., kaolinite, halloysite):

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 Different Clay Minerals
Different combinations of tetrahedral and octahedral
sheets form different clay minerals:

2:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., montmorillonite, illite)

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 Kaolinite

Al
Si
Typically
70-100 Al
0.72 nm
layers Si
Al
joined by strong H-bond
no easy separation Si
Al joined by oxygen
sharing
Si
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 Kaolinite

used in paints, paper and in pottery and

pharmaceutical industries
(OH)8Al4Si4O10

Halloysite
kaolinite family; hydrated and tubular structure

(OH)8Al4Si4O10.4H2O

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 Montmorillonite
also called smectite; expands on contact with water
Si
Al
Si

Si
Al 0.96 nm
easily separated Si
by water
Si
joined by weak
van der Waals bond Al
Si 15
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 Montmorillonite

A highly reactive (expansive) clay

(OH)4Al4Si8O20.nH2O swells on contact with water

high affinity to water

Bentonite
montmorillonite family

used as drilling mud, in slurry trench walls,

stopping leaks
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 Illite
Si
Al
Si
joined by K+ ions
Si
fit into the hexagonal 0.96 nm
Al
holes in Si-sheet
Si

Si
Al
Si
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 Others
Chlorite
A 2:1:1 (???) mineral.
Si Al Al or Mg

Vermiculite
montmorillonite family; 2 interlayers of water

Attapulgite
chain structure (no sheets); needle-like appearance
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 A Clay Particle

Plate-like or Flaky Shape

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 Clay Fabric
edge-to-face contact
face-to-face contact

Flocculated Dispersed
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 Clay Fabric

Electrochemical environment (i.e., pH, acidity, temperature,

cations present in the water) during the time of
sedimentation influence clay fabric significantly.
Clay particles tend to align perpendicular to the load applied on them.

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 Scanning Electron Microscope

common technique to see clay particles

qualitative

plate-like
structure

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 SEM Images

Dispersed kaolinite fabric

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 Others
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
to identify the molecular structure and minerals present

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

to identify the minerals present

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 Casagrandes PI-LL Chart

60
U-line
50
montmorillonite illite A-line
Plasticity Index

40

30
kaolinite
20
halloysite
10

0
chlorite
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid Limit

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 Specific Surface

surface area per unit mass (m2/g)

smaller the grain, higher the specific surface

e.g., soil grain with specific gravity of 2.7

1 mm cube
10 mm cube
spec. surface = 222.2 mm2/g spec. surface = 2222.2 mm2/g
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 Isomorphous Substitution

substitution of Si4+ and Al3+ by other lower valence

(e.g., Mg2+) cations
results in charge imbalance (net negative)

positively charged edges

+ +
+ _ _ _ _+ + _ negatively charged faces
+ _ _ _ __
+ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _

Clay Particle with Net negative Charge 29

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 Cation Exchange Capacity (c.e.c)

known as exchangeable cations

capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e., measure of

the net negative charge of the clay particle)

measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100 g of clay)

milliequivalents

The replacement power is greater for higher valence and

larger cations.
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ >> NH4+ > K+ > H+ > Na+ > Li+
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 Major Clay Minerals -A Comparison

Mineral Specific surface C.E.C

(m2/g) (meq/100g)
Kaolinite 10-20 3-10
Illite 80-100 20-30
Montmorillonite 800 80-120
Chlorite 80 20-30

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 Cation Concentration in Water
cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle
+ clay particle +

+- - + cations
+ + +
+ + + - - ++ + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + - - + +
+ + - + +
+ + + + + -+ + + + +
+ +
+ + + + + - - + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + +- -+ +
+ + + + +
+ +- -+ +
+ + + +
+ +

+ double layer + free water

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 Adsorbed Water

A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin

1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick

more viscous than free water

- - adsorbed water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- - 33
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 Clay Particle in Water

adsorbed water

- -
1nm
- -
- - 50 nm
- - free water
- -
- - double layer
- - water
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 Clays

Clay particles are like plates or needles. They are

negatively charged.

Clays are plastic and cohesive; Silts, sands and gravels are
non-plastic and non-cohesive.
Clays exhibit high dry strength and slow dilatancy.

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 Montmorillonite

Montmorillonites have very high specific surface,

cation exchange capacity, and affinity to water.
They form reactive clays.

Montmorillonites have very high liquid limit (100+),

plasticity index and activity (1-7).

Bentonite (a form of Montmorillonite) is often used as

drilling mud.
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