CHAPTER

6
Telecommunications
and Networks
 Communications

The
transmission
of a signal
by way of a
medium
from a
sender to a
receiver.
 Telecommunications
The electronic transmission of signals
for communications, including such
means as:
Telephone
Radio

Television

Computer Network
 Benefits of
Telecommunications
Better Communication
E-mail, voice mail, faxes, teleconferencing
Greater Efficiency
Workflow, concurrent access
Better Access to Data
File transfer, distributed databases
 Modes of Data Transfer

Parallel
More than one bit at the same time
Printers, Processors, Motherboards
Serial
One bit at a time
Slower, but longer distances
Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission
 Modes of Data Transfer

Simplex
One-way transmission
Half-Duplex
One-way at a time
Full-Duplex
Two-way transmission
The Concept of Networking

Computers connected to each other so

they can share data
Before Networking: SneakerNet
Copy information to a floppy disk and pass
it to anyone who needs it
Risks?
 Why Network

File Management
Sharing, transferring
Application Sharing
Device Sharing
Printers, Storage Devices, Modems
Workgroup Activities
Scheduling, e-mail, conferencing
 A Computer Network

Hardware
Modems, servers, routers, NICs
Software
Network operating systems
Communications software
Communication Channels
Cabling, microwave, etc.
 Networking

Local Area Network (LAN)

A group of computers (physically)
connected together within a certain area
Wide Area Network (WAN)
A network that extends over a larger
area, such as a city block or a country
 Categories of Networks

Peer-to-Peer (workgroups)
Typically <10 people
No central communication control device
Each computer acts as client and server
Inexpensive
Limited security
Uses each PCs resources
Windows, Windows NT/2000
Categories of Networks

Server-based
Dedicated servers
File, application, mail, fax, communication
Centralized, shared resources
Security
Backup
Thousands of users
 Terminal-to-Host

Dumb
terminal

Applications and databases reside on the

host computer (server).
User interacts with the application using a
terminal with no processing power. 29
 File/Application Server
File/Application
downloaded to user

Databases (and applications) reside on the host

computer (server).
File server transfers data (and programs) to PCs on
the network, where these fat PCs perform most
of the processing. 30
 Client/Server

Applications and databases reside on specialized

servers.
Servers do most or all of the processing and
transmit the results to the thin clients. 31
 Client/Server

The client makes a request and the server fulfills it

The client application (front-end) requests data
The request is sent over the network
The server (back-end) processes the request
Only the requested information is returned to the client
The data is presented to the user
Improved Performance
Minimizes network traffic only the information needed is
transmitted
 Network Terminology

Workstation
Each computer attached to the network
Node
Each device attached to the network (each has a
unique hexadecimal MAC - Media Access
Control address e.g. 08:00:69:02:01:FC )
Server
A central repository for information
Topology
The overall configuration of the network
 Network Topology
Connecting every node to every other
node would require N x (N-1)/2 cables

Network Topology
A logical model that describes how networks
are structured or configured.
Bus
Star or combinations
Ring

24
 Network Topologies
Ring Bus
A typology Computers
that Ring and computer
contains devices are on
Bus a single line.
computers
and Each device
computer can
devices communicate
placed in a directly to all
ring. Star devices on the
Hierarchical bus.

Star
All
computers
are
connected
Hierarchical
via a central
A typology arranged in a
hub.
tree-like structure.
 The Role of Network
Communications Software
Sending data from one node to another
Recognize the data
Divide the data into manageable chunks
Add information to each chunk of data to
identify the receiver
Add timing and error checking information
Put the data on the network and send it on
its way
 The OSI Model
(Open Systems Interconnection)

Describes how network hardware and

software work together in a layered fashion
Each layer provides some service or action that
prepares the data for delivery over the network
Requests are passed from one layer to the next
Each layer adds information to the data packet
 The OSI Layers

7) Application Provides application with access to the network

6) Presentation Determines format used to exchange data among
networked computers
5) Session Allows two applications to establish a connection
(name recognition, security)
4) Transport Ensures data is error free. Repackages long
messages.
3) Network Addresses messages to proper location. Translates
logical addresses into physical addresses and determines path.
2) Data Link Packages and un-packages data packets
1) Physical Transmits bits over physical devices
Mail Delivery Analogy

Slide 5 of 26
 Data Packets

Packets are the basic units of network

communications
Each packet has three sections:
Header:
An alert signal
Source & destination addresses
Clock information
Data
Trailer Error checking information
 Protocols

From the Greek protocollon, which was a

leaf of paper glued to a manuscript volume,
describing its contents
The special set of rules that nodes in a
telecommunication connection use when
they communicate.
Protocols exist at several OSI levels in a
telecommunication connection.
Both nodes must recognize and observe a
protocol.
 Protocols

Rules & procedures for communicating

Sending Computer
Breaks the data into packets
Adds addressing information

Prepares the data for transmission

Receiving Computer
Takes packets off the cable
Strips the packets of addressing information

Reassembles the data form the packets

 Protocols

For two computers to communicate, they must

be using the same set of protocols (rules)
Examples of protocols
SMTP Mail transfer protocol
FTP File transfer protocol
TCP/IP Internet protocol
IPX/SPX Novell protocol
Ethernet Physical layer protocol
 Traffic Control

If two computers put data onto the cable

at the same time, the packets will collide
and be destroyed
There must be a way to
Access the cable without running into other
data
Be accessed by the receiving computer with
assurance that it is intact
 Access Methods

Carrier-Sense Multiple Access

Each node checks the cable for traffic
before sending
No node can transmit data until the cable
is free (no contention)
If two computers transmit at the same
time, they detect the collision and wait a
random time to re-transmit
Token Passing
 Communication
Media/Channels
Cabling
Microwave/Satellite
Cellular
Infrared
Telephone Lines
 Cabling Considerations

Cost
Ease of Installation & Maintenance
Reliability
Speed
Distance
Distance Considerations

Attenuation
Loss of signal quality & strength
Repeaters can extend the distance
Packet Collisions
Susceptibility to RF Noise
Types of Cabling

Twisted Pair Wire Cable

Insulated pairs of wires historically used
in telephone service
Category 1 Telephones
Category 3 Up to 10Mbps

Category 5 Up to 100Mbps
 Twisted Pair Details

RF Noise
Twisting cancels out electrical noise
Shielded is less susceptible
Crosstalk
10Base-T
Maximum segment ~100 meters
RJ-45 connectors
Types of Cabling

Coaxial Cable (BNC)

Consists of an inner conductor wire
surrounded by insulation, called the
dielectric. The dielectric is
surrounded by a conductive shield,
which is surrounded by a non-
conductive jacket. Coaxial cable
has better data transmission rate
than twisted pair
 Coax Details

More resistant to interference and

attenuation than TP
Supports longer distance and faster
rates
BNC or RG6 connectors
 Types of Cabling

Fiber-optic Cable
Many extremely thin fibers of glass or plastic
coated with a cladding and bound together in a
sheathing which transmits signals with light
beams.
Fast transfer rates
Immune to electrical interference (long distances)

Hard to tap into

Takes less space

 Wireless Networks

Microwave
Terrestrial
Satellite
Cellular
Infrared
Line-of-sight
 Channels and Media

Figure 6.7 Characteristics of channel media

Data Communications Over
Telephone Lines
Computers generate a digital signal

Phone circuits were designed to

accommodate an analog signal
 Analog Signals

Signals of varying frequency (pitch) and

amplitude (loudness)
Continuous (infinite number of values)
Analogous to the original data
e.g. phone lines carry electronic signals analogous
to the original voices
Must be amplified (repeated)
Signal picks up (and amplifies) noise
Cannot differentiate between signal and noise
 Digital Signals

Signals with only two possible values

Discrete (fixed number of values)
Repeaters can clean up noise
Expects only 0 or 1
Telephones
Use analog over local loop to local phone
office
Converted to digital for longer distances
Analog wave is converted to discrete digital signals
 What a Modem Does

Modem
Modulates a digital signal into an analog signal for transmission via
analog medium, then demodulates the signal into digital for receiving.
 Modulation

Converts digital signals into analog

signals
Frequency Modulation Vary the frequency
(pitch) to express a 1 or 0
Amplitude Modulation Vary the amplitude
(volume) to express a 1 or 0
Demodulation converts them back
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
 Synchronization

How do analog noises get divided up into

bits?
Asynchronous Communications
Sends stop bit (1) after 7-8 bits per character
Sends start bit (0) to indicate next character

Synchronous Communications
Splits the channel into two channels
Uses the second channel to send a clock
 Error Detection

Redundancy
Send everything twice
Parity
8th bit makes parity even or odd
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
Checks parity vertically & horizontally per block
Checksum
Checks the last 7 digits of the sum of a block
 Error Correction

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

Sender sends a block
Receiver ACKnowledges or
Receiver sends a Negative Acknowledgement
(NAK)
Full Duplex
Sender keeps sending numbered blocks while
awaiting acknowledgements
 Finding a Path

Circuit Switching
A dedicated channel (circuit) is
established for the duration of the
transmission (e.g. a phone call)
Packet Switching
A message is divided into packets and
each may take a different path (e.g.
TCP/IP)
Dedicated Lines
 Multiplexing

Sharing Channels
Phone conversation has 4Khz bandwidth
Copper wire pair has 3Mhz bandwidth
Allows multiple TV signals on coax
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Time-Division Multiplexing
 Multiplexer (mux)

Figure 6.11

Multiplexer
Allows several telecommunications signals to be transmitted
over a single communications medium at the same time.
 Carriers and Services

Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)

56Kbps
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
128Kbps
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
1,544Kbps
Cable Modem
Receive 256K-36Mbps; send at 64K-2Mbps
T-1
1,544Kbps (or multiples/fractions thereof)
 Network Management

Network Monitors
Keep track of network traffic, number of
packets, packet size, collisions, re-
transmissions, etc.
Enables planning
Network Analyzers
Randomly dissects packets, analyzes
problems, and determines the source
 Networks and Distributed
Processing
Centralized Processing
Data processing that occurs in a single location or
facility.
Decentralized Processing
Data processing that occurs when devices are
placed at various remote locations.
Distributed Processing
Data processing that occurs when computers are
placed at remote locations but are connected to
each other via telecommunications devices.
23
Bridges, Routers, Gateways and Switches
Repeaters
Repeat transmission signals, allowing a cabled network
to extend farther than it ordinarily would
Bridges
Connects two or more networks, with the same or
different protocols. Can also solve traffic problems by
splitting a network into two segments.
Routers
Feature more sophisticated addressing software than
bridges. Can determine preferred paths, translating only
those packets that need to be routed.
Gateways
Devices that monitors/controls entry to another network

Switches/Hubs
Points of convergence where data arrives from one or
more directions and is forwarded out in one or more
other directions