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Discrete Structure JHCSC

The document discusses discrete mathematics and introduces sets and elements. It defines what a set is, how to specify sets, subsets, and provides examples. It also introduces Venn diagrams which are used to represent relationships between sets visually.

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103 views

Discrete Structure JHCSC

The document discusses discrete mathematics and introduces sets and elements. It defines what a set is, how to specify sets, subsets, and provides examples. It also introduces Venn diagrams which are used to represent relationships between sets visually.

Uploaded by

rendezvousfr
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discrete Structure

MWF (4:00-5:00) / ThF (4:00-5:30)


Engr. Francis Jason Frederick C. Revil
Introduction
Discrete mathematics is an essential tool in almost all
subareas of computer science.
Discrete mathematics, the study of finite systems, has
become increasingly important as the computer age has
advanced.
The digital computer is basically a finite structure, and
many of its properties can be understood and interpreted
within the framework of finite mathematical systems.
Interesting and challenging problems in discrete
mathematics arise in programming languages, computer
architecture, networking, distributed systems, database
systems, AI, theoretical computer science, and other
areas.
Introduction

The concept of a set appears in all mathematics.


This chapter introduces the notation and terminology of
set theory which is basic and used throughout the text.
The chapter closes with the formal definition of
mathematical induction, with examples.
Sets And Elements, Subsets
A set may be viewed as any well-defined collection of
objects, called the elements or members of the set.
One usually uses capital letters, A,B,X, Y, . . . , to denote
sets, and lowercase letters, a, b, x, y, . . ., to denote
elements of sets. Synonyms for set are class,
collection, and family.
Membership in a set is denoted as follows:
aS denotes that a belongs to a set S
a, b S denotes that a and b belong to a set S

Here is the symbol meaning is an element of.


We use " to mean is not an element of.
Sets And Elements, Subsets
Specifying Sets
There are essentially two ways to specify a particular set.
One way, if possible, is to list its members separated by commas
and contained in braces { }.
A second way is to state those properties which characterized the
elements in the set.
Examples illustrating these two ways are:

A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {x | x is an even integer, x > 0}

That is, A consists of the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9.


Sets And Elements, Subsets
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {x | x is an even integer, x > 0}

The second set, which reads:

B is the set of x such that x is an even integer and x is greater than 0,

denotes the set B whose elements are the positive integers. Note that
a letter, usually x, is used to denote a typical member of the set; and
the vertical line | is read as such that and the comma as and.
Sets And Elements, Subsets
EXAMPLE 1.1
a) The set A above can also be written as A = {x | x is an odd
positive integer, x < 10}.
b) We cannot list all the elements of the above set B although
frequently we specify the set by
B = {2, 4, 6, . . .}
where we assume that everyone knows what we mean.
Observe that 8 B, but 3 B.
Sets And Elements, Subsets
c) Let E = {x | x2 3x + 2 = 0}, F = {2, 1}
and G = {1, 2, 2, 1}. Then E = F = G.
We emphasize that a set does not depend on the way in
which its elements are displayed.
A set remains the same if its elements are repeated or
rearranged.
Even if we can list the elements of a set, it may not be
practical to do so. That is, we describe a set by listing its
elements only if the set contains a few elements; otherwise
we describe a set by the property which characterizes its
elements.
Sets And Elements, Subsets
Subsets
Suppose every element in a set A is also an element of a set
B, that is, suppose a " A implies a " B. Then A is called a
subset of B.We also say that A is contained in B or that B
contains A. This relationship is written
A B or B A
Two sets are equal if they both have the same elements or,
equivalently, if each is contained in the other. That is:

A = B if and only if A B and B A

If A is not a subset of B, that is, if at least one element of A


does not belong to B, we write A B.
Sets And Elements, Subsets
EXAMPLE 1.2 Consider the sets:
A = {1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9}, B= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, C= {1, 3}.

Then C A and C B since 1 and 3, the elements of C, are


also members of A and B. But B A since some of the
elements of B, e.g., 2 and 5, do not belong to A. Similarly,
A B.

Property 1: It is common practice in mathematics to put a


vertical line | or slanted line / through a symbol to
indicate the opposite or negative meaning of a symbol.
Sets And Elements, Subsets
Property 2: The statement A B does not exclude the
possibility that A = B. In fact, for every set A we have
A A since, trivially, every element in A belongs to A.
However, if A B and A B, then we say A is a
proper subset of B (sometimes written A B).
Property 3: Suppose every element of a set A belongs to a
set B and every element of B belongs to a set C.
Then clearly every element of A also belongs to C. In other
words, if A B and B C, then A C.

The above remarks yield the following theorem.


Sets And Elements, Subsets
Theorem 1.1: Let A, B, C be any sets. Then:
(i) A A
(ii) If A B and B A, then A = B
(iii) If A B and B C, then A C
Special symbols
Some sets will occur very often in the text, and so we use special symbols
for them. Some such symbols are:
N = the set of natural numbers or positive integers: 1, 2, 3, . . .
Z = the set of all integers: . . . ,2,1, 0, 1, 2, . . .
Q = the set of rational numbers
R = the set of real numbers
C = the set of complex numbers
Observe that N Z Q R C.
Sets And Elements, Subsets
Universal Set, Empty Set
All sets under investigation in any application of set theory are
assumed to belong to some fixed large set called the universal
set which we denote by
U
unless otherwise stated or implied.
Given a universal set U and a property P, there may not be any
elements of U which have property P. For example, the
following set has no elements:
S = {x | x is a positive integer, x2 = 3}
Such a set with no elements is called the empty set or null set and is
denoted by

Sets And Elements, Subsets
There is only one empty set. That is, if S and T are both empty,
then S = T , since they have exactly the same
elements, namely, none.

The empty set is also regarded as a subset of every other


set. Thus we have the following simple result which we state
formally.

Theorem 1.2: For any set A, we have A U.


Sets And Elements, Subsets
Disjoint Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no
elements in common. For example, suppose

A = {1, 2}, B= {4, 5, 6}, and C = {5, 6, 7, 8}

Then A and B are disjoint, and A and C are disjoint. But B and
C are not disjoint since B and C have elements in common,
e.g., 5 and 6.We note that if A and B are disjoint, then neither is
a subset of the other (unless one is the empty set).
VENN DIAGRAMS
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets in which
sets are represented by enclosed areas in the plane.
The universal set U is represented by the interior of a
rectangle, and the other sets are represented by disks lying
within the rectangle.
If A B, then the disk representing A will be entirely within
the disk representing B as in Fig. 1-1(a).
If A and B are disjoint, then the disk representing A will be
separated from the disk representing B as in Fig. 1-1(b).
VENN DIAGRAMS
However, if A and B are two arbitrary sets, it is possible that
some objects are in A but not in B, some are in B but not in
A, some are in both A and B, and some are in neither A nor
B; hence in general we represent A and B as in Fig. 1-1(c).

Arguments and Venn Diagrams


Many verbal statements are essentially statements about sets and can
therefore be described by Venn diagrams.
Hence Venn diagrams can sometimes be used to determine whether or
not an argument is valid.

EXAMPLE 1.3 Show that the following argument (adapted from a book on
logic by Lewis Carroll, the author of Alice in Wonderland) is valid:
VENN DIAGRAMS
However, if A and B are two arbitrary sets, it is possible that
some objects are in A but not in B, some are in B but not in
A, some are in both A and B, and some are in neither A nor
B; hence in general we represent A and B as in Fig. 1-1(c).

Arguments and Venn Diagrams


Many verbal statements are essentially statements about sets and can
therefore be described by Venn diagrams.
Hence Venn diagrams can sometimes be used to determine whether or
not an argument is valid.

EXAMPLE 1.3 Show that the following argument (adapted from a book on
logic by Lewis Carroll, the author of Alice in Wonderland) is valid:
VENN DIAGRAMS
VENN DIAGRAMS
The statements S1, S2, and S3 above the horizontal line
denote the assumptions, and the statement S below the line
denotes the conclusion. The argument is valid if the
conclusion S follows logically from the assumptions S1, S2,
and S3.
By S1 the tin objects are contained in the set of saucepans,
and by S3 the set of saucepans and the set of useful things
are disjoint. Furthermore, by S2 the set of your presents is
a subset of the set of useful things. Accordingly, we can
draw the Venn diagram in Fig. 1-2.
The conclusion is clearly valid by the Venn diagram because
the set of your presents is disjoint from the set of tin
objects.
VENN DIAGRAMS

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