COMMON NONLINEARITIES IN CONTROL SYSTEMS:

Consider the typical block shown in Figure 1. It is composed of four parts: a plant
to be controlled, sensors for measurement, actuators for control action, and a
control low, usually implemented on a computer. Nonlinearities may occur in any
part of the system, thus make it a nonlinear control system.

r(t) + y(t)
Controller Actuators Plant
-

Sensors

Figure 1. Block diagram of control systems.

Continuous and Discontinuous Nonlinearities:

Nonlinearities can be classified as continuous and discontinuous. Because

discontinuous nonlinearities cannot be locally approximated by linear functions,
they are also called “hard” nonlinearities. Hard nonlinearities are commonly found
in control systems, both in small range operation and large range operation.
Whether a system in small range operation should be regarded as nonlinear or
linear depends on the magnitude of the hard nonlinearities and on the extent of
their effects on the system performance.
Slotine and Li, Applied Nonlinear Control
Saturation:

When one increases the input to a physical device, the following phenomenon
is often observed: when the input is small, its increase leads to a corresponding
(often proportional) increase of output: but when the input reaches a certain
level, its further increase does produce little or no increase of the output. The
output simply stays around its maximum value. The device is said to be
saturation when this happen. A typical saturation nonlinearity is represented in
Figure 2, where the thick line is the real nonlinearity and the thin line is an
idealized saturation nonlinearity.

Figure 2. A saturation nonlinearity.

Most actuators display saturation characteristics. For example, the output torque
of a two-phase servo motor cannot increase infinitely and tends to saturate, due
to the properties of magnetic material.
The input-output relationship for a saturation nonlinearity is plotted in Figure 3, with
a and k denoting the range and slope of the linearity. Since this nonlinearity is
single-valued, we expect the describing function to be a real function of the input
amplitude.

Figure 3. Saturation nonlinearity and the corresponding input-output relationship.

 Consider the input x(t)=Asin(ωt). If A≤a, then the input remains in the linear range,
and therefore, the output is w(t)=kAsin(ωt). Hence, the describing function is
simply a constant k.
Consider the case A>a. The input and the output functions are plotted in Figure 3.
The output is seen to be symmetric over the four quarters of a period. In the first
quarter, it can be expressed as
 kA sin t  0  t  

w (t)   
a
x ( t )  A sin    a    sin 1    ka   t 
A  2
where γ=sin-1(a/A). The odd nature of w(t) implies that a1=0 and the symmetry over
the four quarters of a period implies that
4 2
b1   w ( t ) sin t  dt 
 0 w ( t )  N( A) x ( t )
4  4 2 b1 sin t 
  ka sin t  dt    ka sin t  d t 
2 N( A) 
A sin t 
 0  
Therefore, the describing function is
2kA  a2 
b1 2k  1  a  a a2 
a
b1    1 2 
  A A  N(A)   sin    1 2 
A   A A A 
The normalized describing function N(A)/k is plotted in Figure 4 as a function
of A/a. One can observe three features for this describing function.
1. N(A)=k if the input amplitude is in the linearity range
2. N(A) decreases as the input amplitude increases
3. There is no phase shift

N(A)/k
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

1 5 10 A/a

Figure 4. Describing function of the saturation nonlinearity

Slotine and Li, Applied Nonlinear Control

Relay Nonlinearity:
As a special case, one can obtain the describing function for the relay-type
(on-off) nonlinearity shown in Figure 5. This case corresponds to shrinking the
linearity range in the saturation function to zero, i.e., a0, k∞, but ka=M.
b1 can be easily obtained directly as
4 2
b1   M sin t  dt   M
4
 0 
Therefore, the describing function of the relay nonlinearity is
4M
N(A)  N(A)/M to infinity
A
1

w 0.8
on 0.6
M
0.4 to zero
x 0.2
0 0

-M 1 5 10 A
off Figure 5. Describing function of the relay nonlinearity
Dead-Zone:

Consider the dead-zone characteristics shown in Figure 6, with the dead-zone with
being 2δ and its slope k

-δ
δ x

dead-zone
Figure 6. A dead-zone nonlinearity.
Dead-zones can have a number of possible effects on control systems. Their
most common effect is to decrease static output accuracy. They may also lead
to limit cycles or system instability because of the lack of response in the dead-
zone. The response corresponding to a sinusoidal input x(t)=Asin(ωt) into a
dead-zone of width 2δ and slope k, with A≥δ, is plotted in Figure 7. Since the
characteristics is an odd function, a1=0. The response is also seen to be
symmetric over the four quarters of a period. In one quarter of a period, i.e.,
when 0≤ωt≤/2, one has

Slotine and Li, Applied Nonlinear Control

 x(t)

Figure 7. Input and output functions for a dead-zone nonlinearity.

Slotine and Li, Applied Nonlinear Control

  0 0  t  
w(t)  
k A sin t       t   / 2

where   sin 1  / A 

The coefficient b1 can be computed as follows

4 2
b1   w ( t ) sin t  dt 
 0
4 2
  k A sin t    sin t dt 
 
2kA   1      2 
  sin    1 2
  2 A A A 

2k        2 
NA    sin 1    1 2 
  2 A A A 
This describing function N(A) is a real function and, therefore, there is no
phase shift (reflecting the absence of time-delay). The normalized describing
function is plotted in Figure 8. It is seen that N(A)/k is zero when A/<1, and
increases up to 1 with A/. This incraese indicates that the effect of the dead-
zone gradually diminishes as the amplitude of the signal is increased,
consistently with intuition.

N(A)/k
1
0.8
0.6 dead-zone
0.4 converging to 1
0.2
0

1 5 10 A/
Figure 8.Describing function of the dead-zone nonlinearity.

Slotine and Li, Applied Nonlinear Control

Backlash:
Backlash often occurs in transmission systems. It is caused by the small gaps
which exist in transmission mechanism. In gear trains, there always exists
small gaps between a pair of mating gears as shown in Figure 9.

output angle

C B
slope 1
O A
-b b input angle
D
E

Figure 9. A backlash nonlinearity.

The backlash occurs as result of the unavoidable errors in manufacturing and
assembly. As a results of the gaps, when the driving gear rotates a smaller angle
than the gap b, the driven gear does not move at all, which corresponds to the
dead zone (OA segment); after contact has been established between the two
gears, the driven gear follows the rotation of the driving gear in a liner fashion
(AB segment). When the driving gear rotates in the reverse direction by a
distance of 2b, the driven gear again does not move, corresponding the BC
segment.
After the contact between the two gears is re-established, the driven gear follows
the rotation of the driving gear in the reverse direction (CD segment). Therefore,
if the driving gear is in periodic motion, the driven gear will move in the fashion
represented by the closed loop EBCD. Note that the height of B, C, D, E in the
figure depends on the amplitude of the input sinusoidal.

Figure 10 shows a backlash nonlinearity, with slope k and width 2b. If the input
amplitude is smaller then b, there is no output. Consider the input being
x(t)=Asin(ωt), A≥b. The output w(t) of the nonlinearity is as shown in the figure.
In one cycle, the function w(t) can be represented as


w ( t )  A  b k  t    
2
3
w ( t )  A sin t   b k     t 
2
3
w ( t )  A  b k  t  2  
2
5
w ( t )  A sin t   b k 2    t 
2
where   sin 1 1  2b / A 

Figure 10. Backlash nonlinearity. Slotine and Li, Applied Nonlinear Control
Unlike the other nonlinearities, the function w(t) here is neither odd nor even.
Therefore, a1 and b1 are both nonzero.

4kb  b 
a1    1 
 A 
Ak  
2 
  sin 1      
2 b 2 b 2 b
b1   1    1 1    1 
 2 A  A  A  

Therefore, the describing function of the backlash is given by

1
N(A)  a 12  b12
A
 a1 
angle ( N (A ))  tan  1

 b1 
The amplitude of the describing function for backlash is plotted in Figure 11.

Slotine and Li, Applied Nonlinear Control

 N(A) Angle(N(A))

1.0
0
0.8
-20
0.6
-40
0.4
-60
0.2
-80
0
-90
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 b/A 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 b/A

Figure 11. Aplitude and phase angle of describing function for backlash.

Unlike the previous nonlinearities, a phase angle is introduced by backlash. The

phase lag is the reflection of the time delay of the backlash, which is due to the
gap b. Of course, a larger b leads to a larger phase lag, which may create
stability problems in feedback control systems.

Slotine and Li, Applied Nonlinear Control

 w
Example: on
1
Consider the plant with relay nonlinearity x
K 0
G (s) 
sT1s  1T2s  1 -1
off
2
T1=3, T2=2, K=2, M=1, r(t)=3.05u(t) G (s)  3
6 s  5 s2  s
Construct the Simulink model including relay nonlinearity and observe the
response.

Limit cycle occurs