THEORIES OF

MEMORIES
AND FORGETTING
 MEMORY

 Memory is the is the process by which we encode, store and

retrieve information (Feldman, 2008)

 Memory is vital to experiences and related to limbic system, it is

the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing
future action.If we could not remember past events, we could not
learn or develop language, relationships, nor personal identity.
 THEORIES OF MEMORIES
AND FORGETTING
 The multi store model of memory (also known as the modal
model) was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural
model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory
register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

 Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been
described as an information processing model (like a computer) with an
input, process and output.
MULTI STORE MODEL
 THREE COMPONENTS OF
MULTI STORE MODEL

 a sensory register, where sensory information enters memory,

 a short-term store, also called working memory or short-term memory,
which receives and holds input from both the sensory register and the
long-term store, and
 a long-term store, where information which has been rehearsed
(explained below) in the short-term store is held indefinitely
 SENSORY REGISTER

 When an environmental stimulus is detected by the senses it is

briefly available in what Atkinson and Shiffrin called the sensory
registers (also sensory buffers or sensory memory). Though this store is
generally referred to as "the sensory register" or "sensory memory", it
is actually composed of multiple registers, one for each sense. While it
is generally agreed that there is a sensory register for each sense, most
of the research in the area has focused on the visual and auditory
systems.
 IONIC MEMORY

 is associated with the visual system, is perhaps the most

researched of the sensory registers. The original evidence
suggesting sensory stores which are separate to short-term and
long-term memory was experimentally demonstrated for the visual
system using a tachistoscope.
 ECHOIC MEMORY

 Echoic memory, coined by Ulric Neisser,[ refers to information

that is registered by the auditory system. As with iconic memory,
echoic memory only holds superficial aspects of sound (e.g. pitch,
tempo, or rhythm) and it has a nearly limitless capacity Echoic
memory is generally cited as having a duration of between 1.5 and 5
seconds depending on context but has been shown to last up to 20
seconds in the absence of competing information.
 SHORT-TERM STORE

 While much of the information in sensory memory decays

and is forgotten, some is attended to. The information that is
attended is transferred to the short-term store (also short-term
memory, working memory; note that while these terms are often
used interchangeably they were not originally intended to be
used as such]).
 DURATION

 As with sensory memory, the information that enters short-term

memory decays and is lost, but the information in the short-term store
has a longer duration, approximately 18–20 seconds when the information
is not being actively rehearsed, though it is possible that this depends on
modality and could be as long as 30 seconds. Fortunately, the information
can be held in the short-term store for much longer through what
Atkinson and Shiffrin called rehearsal.
 CAPACITY

 There is a limit to the amount of information that can be held in

the short-term store: chunks.
 These chunks, which were noted by Miller in his seminal paper The
Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two, are defined as independent
items of information.
 Chunks pertains to the groupings of categories into meaningful
unit stored in short term memory.
 LONG-TERM STORE

 (also long-term memory) is a more or less permanent store.

Information that is stored here can be "copied" and transferred to
the short-term store where it can be attended to and manipulated.

 It is analogous to a computer hard disk drive. This drive can

hold large amounts of information that are available and
accessibility.
 TRANSFER FROM STS

 . Some extraneous variables include:

 Participant differences

 Demand characteristics

 Experimenter effect

 Non-standardized instructions and procedures

 CAPACITY AND
DURATION

 In this model, as with most models of memory, long-term memory is

assumed to be nearly limitless in its duration and capacity. It is most often
the case that brain structures begin to deteriorate and fail before any limit
of learning is reached. This is not to assume that any item which is stored
in long-term memory is accessible at any point in the lifetime. Rather, it is
noted that the connections, cues, or associations to the memory
deteriorate; the memory remains intact but unreachable.
KINDS OF LONG TERM
MEMORY
 MEASURING MEMORY

Recall is the process by which we search from

storage some needed information. You would have
only rely ion stock knowledge. Recalling the items is
a matter of ascertaining and representing previous
information from storage.
 MEASURING MEMORY

Recognition is a matter of identifying items that

have been previously encountered. Note that in
recognition, the item you are trying to remember is
physically present. It is a matter of identifying or
naming what those items are.
 MEMORY DISORDERS
 Alzheimer’s Disease  Mild Cognitive Impairment

 Corticobasal Degeneration  Progressive Supranuclear

 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Palsy

 Front temporal Dementia  Vascular Dementia

 Huntington's Disease

 Lewy Body Dementia

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
 Loss of Abstract Thinking — Someone with Alzheimer's disease may lose the
ability to draw conclusions and solve problems. It may become difficult to balance a
checkbook, for example, because the patient has forgotten what to do with the numbers.

 Disorientation — People with Alzheimer's disease can become lost on the street
where they live, forget where they are and how they got there, and not know how to get
back home.

 Lack of Initiative — A person with the disease may become passive or

unmotivated, sitting in front of the television for hours, sleeping more than usual and not
pursuing his or her usual activities.
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
 Language Problems — People with Alzheimer's disease often forget simple words
or substitute words with inappropriate ones. An Alzheimer's patient who can't find his or
her toothbrush may ask for "that thing for my mouth."

 Misplacing Items — We're all prone to misplacing a wallet or key from time to time,
but a person with Alzheimer's will put things in unusual places, such as an iron in the
freezer or a wristwatch in the sugar bowl.

 Mood Swings — Rapid mood swings — from calm to tears to anger — for no
apparent reason is another common symptom.
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
 Personality Changes — Personalities tend to change with age, but a person
with Alzheimer's disease may have a severe personality change, becoming extremely
confused, suspicious, fearful or dependent on a family member.
 Poor Judgment — A loss of judgment is a common symptom. A patient may
dress without regard to the weather, wearing several shirts or blouses on a warm day
or very little clothing in cold weather. Others may give away large amounts of
money to telemarketers or pay for home repairs or products they don't need.
 CORTICOBASAL
DEGENERATION
 The gradual loss of brain tissue and symptoms typically begin between ages
45 and 70. Initial symptoms include stiffness; shaky, slow or clumsy
movements; and difficulty with speech and comprehension.
 Other symptoms include:
 Balance — Difficulty walking and balancing
 Memory — Short-term memory problems, such as repeating questions or
misplacing objects
 Muscle Control — Difficulty controlling muscles of the face and mouth
 Speech — Progressive difficulty speaking and difficulty comprehending
language
 CREUTZFELDT -JAKOB
DISEASE
 (CJD) affects many areas of the brain. At UCSF, CJD is sometimes called the "great mimicker"
because it causes symptoms that occur in many other neurological diseases. First symptoms vary widely
and may include the following:
 Behavioral and personality changes
 Confusion and memory problems
 Depression
 Insomnia
 Lack of coordination
 Strange physical sensations
 Vision problems
 As the disease advances, patients may experience a rapidly progressive dementia and in most cases
involuntary and irregular jerking movements called myoclonus.
 FRONTOTEMPORAL
DEMENTIA
 may involve the following symptoms:
 Apathy or an unwillingness to talk
 Change in personality and mood, such as depression
 Lack of inhibition or lack of social tact
 Obsessive or repetitive behavior, such as compulsively shaving or collecting
items
 Unusual verbal, physical or sexual behavior
 Weight gain due to dramatic overeating Patients may neglect hygiene and resist
encouragement to attend to themselves. They also may lack awareness or concern
that their behavior has changed.
HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE
(HD)
 Early symptoms of Huntington's disease (HD) include mood swings,
depression and irritability. Patients may notice problems in their daily
activities such as driving, learning new things, remembering a fact or
making a decision.
 As the disease progresses, concentration and short-term memory
decline and involuntary movements increase. The ability to walk, speak
and swallow deteriorates. Eventually, patients become unable to care for
themselves. Chocking, infection and heart failure are potentially fatal
complications of the disease.
 LEWY BODY DEMENTIA

 Progressive cognitive decline, memory loss and confusion

 Fluctuating ability to comprehend and focus attention

 Recurring visual hallucinations that are typically detailed

 Symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease such as stiff

muscles and shuffling gait.
 MILD COGNITIVE
IMPAIRMENT
 Cognitive function, or the process of thought, includes abilities
such as learning, reading, speaking and writing. Patients with mild
cognitive impairment (MCI) retain these important cognitive skills,
necessary to manage their everyday activities, but have difficulty
remembering recent events or recently acquired information. Long-
term memories tend to remain in tact
 SUPRANUCLEAR PALSY

 Loss of balance while walking is the most common first symptom of

progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP). Patients may have unexplained falls or a
stiffness and awkwardness when walking. Sometimes, the falls seem like attacks
of dizziness, which lead to an incorrect diagnosis of an inner ear problem.

 Other early symptoms include a loss of interest in hobbies or recreational

activities, increased irritability and forgetfulness. Patients may suddenly laugh
or cry, be apathetic or have occasional angry outbursts for no apparent reason.
 VASCULAR DEMENTIA
(VAD)

 Symptoms of vascular dementia (VaD) can develop quickly

or slowly. At times, people with VaD experience long periods
without noticeable changes, or may even show improvement.
But if the disease is caused by a stroke and another stroke
occurs, symptoms may progress rapidly.
 FORGETTING

 Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or

modification of information already encoded and stored in an
individual's long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual
process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from
memory storage. Forgetting also helps to reconcile the storage
of new information with old knowledge
 WHY DO WE FORGET?

 We forget because the memory trace fades (trace decay

theory).; that is, the memory trace is no longer available.

 Some traces interfere with the retrieval of others (interfere

theory); that is memory trace is no longer accessible
(Henderson, 1999).
 THEORIES OF
FORGETTING

Cue-dependent forgetting

Interference theories

Organic causes

Decay theory
 CUE-DEPENDENT
FORGETTING

 Cue-dependent forgetting (also, context-dependent

forgetting) or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall
a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at
the time the memory was encoded. Encoding is the first step
in creating and remembering a memory. How well something
has been encoded in the memory can be measured by
completing specific tests of retrieval.
 ORGANIC CAUSES

 Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or

dilapidation to the brain are referred to as organic causes of
forgetting. These theories encompass the loss of information already
retained in long-term memory or the inability to encode new
information again. Examples include Alzheimer's, amnesia, dementia,
consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central
nervous system due to aging.
 INTERFERENCE THEORY

 refers to the idea that when the learning of something new

causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition
between the two. This essentially states that memory's
information may become confused or combined with other
information during encoding, resulting in the distortion or
disruption of memories.
 INTERFERENCE THEORY

Proactive

 Retroactive and

 Output
 DECAY THEORY

 states that when something new is learned, a

neurochemical, physical "memory trace" is formed in the brain
and over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is
occasionally used. Decay theory states the reason we eventually
forget something or an event is because the memory of it
fades with time.
 KINDS OF MEMORY TASK
USE IN MEASURING
FORGETTING
 Pay attention
 Write it down
 Rehearsal and Repetition
 Association
 Visualization and formation of mental image
 Make use of memory aids like mnemonics, key word method and
the like.