DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

What is design?
• Webstar’ s dictionary:
• To design is “ to fashion after a plan, but leaves out the
essential fact that to design is to create something that has
never been
• Pulling together something new or already existing:
SYNTHESIS
• Def: Design establishes and defines solutions to pertinent
structures for problems not solved before or new solutions
to problems which have previously been solved in a diff
way
• Discovery and design are different
• Discovery: is the first knowledge of something
• Design: is the product of planning and work; It may or may
not involve invention
 Design Contd…

• Good design comprises of both analysis and synthesis

• Analysis: Decomposing the problem into manageable parts
to know about the functionality of the system’s components
• Synthesis: identification of the design elements that will
comprise the product, its decomposition into parts and the
combination of the part solutions into a workable system
 Four C’s of Design

• Creativity:
• Requires creation of something that has not existed before
or not existed in the designer’s mind before
• Complexity:
• Requires decisions on many variables and parameters
• Choice:
• Requires making choices between many possible solution at
all levels from basic concepts to smallest detail of shape
• Compromise:
• Requires balancing multiple and sometimes conflicting
requirements
 Importance of Product Design

Market Dev.
Product Des.
% of product cost committed

100

80 Cost committed Product use

60
Cost incurred
40

20 Manuf.

Conceptual des.
Time
• Only 5% of cost pertains to design process
• 95% of cost is consumed in materials, manufacturing,
capital investment
• Decisions taken in the design phase affects 70-80 % of the
manufactured cost of a product
• Decisions made in design process cost very little in terms of
the overall product cost but have a major effect on the cost
of the product
• Quality cannot be built into a product unless it is designed
into it: Product has to be defect free at a competitive cost
• Design process should be conducted so as to develop
quality, cost-competitive products in the shortest possible
time: Computer-aided Engg and rapid prototyping tools
enhance in reduction of product cycle time
Requirements of good design
• DESIGN REQUIREMENT
Basic requirement of design is the Performance of the product
• Performance measures both function and behavior of the design; How well
the device does what it is designed to do
• Product : is usually made up of a collection of parts, sometimes called piece
parts
• Part/Component: is a single piece requiring no assembly
• Assembly : When two or more parts are joined it is called an assembly
• Subassemblies: Often large assemblies are composed of a collection of
smaller assemblies
• Form: is what the component looks like, and encompasses its shape, size,
and surface finish; depends on the material it is made from and the
manufacturing processes that are used to make it
• Performance requirements:
 Functional performance req.:
 The function of a design is how it is expected to behave
 Addresses capacity measures such as forces, strength, energy, material
flows, power, deflection
 Complementary performance req.: Useful life of the design, robustness of
the product to service environment, its reliability, ease, economy and
maintenance
 Also to conform to all legal reqs and to design codes
 CAE: Handy tool for analysis of products
II. Physical requirements: Pertain to features such as size, weight, shape and
surface finish
III. Environmental requirements:
 Pertains to service conditions such as extremes of temperatures,
humidity, corrosive conds, dirt, vibration, noise, under which the product
must operate
 To how the product will behave with regard to maintaining a safe and clean
environment i.e., green design
IV. Aesthetic requirements:
 Sense of beauty of the product
 How the product is perceived by the customer in terms of its shape, color,
surface texture
 Appearance of the product should be the integral part of the initial design
concept
V. Manufacturing requirement: Selection of the material and availability of
the equipment
VI. Cost:
 Economic decision of the design is the foremost part in a good design
 Issues such as product dev cost, initial product cost, life cycle cost,
tooling cost and finally return on investment are taken into consideration
TOTAL LIFE CYCLE OF A PRODUCT

• Total life cycle of a part starts with the conception of a need and ends with
the retirement and disposal of the product
• Material selection is a key element in shaping the total life cycle
• In the selection of materials, the first step is evaluation of the service
conditions
• Next, the properties of materials that relate most directly to the service
requirements must be determined
• Generally the design starts with the consideration of static yield strength,
but properties that are influenced by the environment such as fatigue, creep,
toughness, ductility, and corrosion resistance are not considered: But have
to be
• Stability of the material under the environmental conditions to be ensured
[Does the microstructure change with temperature and therefore the
properties changes?]
• Material selection, design and manufacturability go hand-in-hand
TOTAL LIFE CYCLE OF A PRODUCT

• Design for materials recycling also is becoming an important consideration

• Societal issues of energy conservation, material conservation, energy costs
and protection of the environment burdens the selection of materials and
manufacturing processes
• Society is becoming increasingly concerned with the depletion of natural
resources and the haphazard disposal of solid materials
• Economical ways to recycle waste materials are to be given prior attention
REGULATORY AND SOCIAL ISSUES
• Standards produced by such societies as ASTM and ASME
represent voluntary agreement among many elements (users
and producers) of industry
• Sometimes a standard is not essential for a particular
function of design
• The codes of ethics of all professional engineering societies
require the engineer to protect public health and safety
• The requirements of the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), the Consumer Product Safety
Commission (CPSC), the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
place direct constraints on the designer in the interests of
protecting health, safety, and security
REGULATORY AND SOCIAL ISSUES
• Although the intended purpose of a product normally is quite
clear, the unintended uses of the product are not always
obvious
• An important design consideration is adequate attention to
human factors engineering, which uses the sciences of
biomechanics, ergonomics, and engineering psychology to
assure that the design can be operated efficiently and safely by
humans.
• It applies physiological and anthropometric data to such design
features as visual and auditory display of instruments and
control systems
• It is also concerned with human muscle power and response
times
 Design Process
1. Identify the problem

2. Define or “refine” the problem

3. Gather information

4. Develop alternate solutions

5. Select and refine the best solution

6. Express the design solution

7. Build a model or prototype

8. Evaluate, revise, and refine

9. Communicate the solution

 1. Identify the Problem

• The first thing a good designer does is identify

the need, problem, or opportunity. This is the
first stage in the design loop. This appears to
be a simple task but it requires careful
observation and a critical eye. Taking the time
to find the root problem is extremely
important so that the ultimate solution works
 2. Define or “refine” the Problem

• The second stage involves defining the

problem to be solved. This involves an
investigation to find out more information
about the problem. A team effort may be
required. Clarification begins with a design
brief which then guides further development
by describing the limitations and
requirements for the project’s solution
 3. Gather Information

• The third activity involves research and

investigation on the problem and the potential
solutions
(Use internet or other search methods)
 4. Develop Alternate Solutions

• This is the divergent thinking step –

brainstorming and other techniques may be
utilized. No possible solutions should be
ignored
• The more ideas generated give a greater
probability of success
• The first idea is rarely the best
 5. Select & Refine the Best Solution

• A Design Proposal
• The best solution for further development
should be selected. An evaluation process
stemming from the design brief may be
utilized as with any decision process
• Everything should be documented
 6. Express the Design Solution

• There are many ways to express a concept

Two of the most common are verbal
expression or text
• Another method which is used when words
are inadequate is mathematics or an
expression

continued
 6. Express the Design Solution

• Often however, a proposed solution has a

shape and is three dimensional, and someone
on the team must understand it well enough
to make a model or a prototype on the
concept
• It should be properly conveyed for further
correct processing
 7. Build a Model or Prototype of the Solution

• This is the modeling or construction part of

the process. This part may contain the most
technological problems. Experimentation
with materials and techniques will need to be
done before actual construction of the final
model can be done. Technical planning
happens at this stage, which could take the
form of a prototype either two-or three
dimensional model
 8. Evaluate, Revise, and Refine the Solution

• At this step, analyze the solution in terms of

effectiveness in solving the original need or
problem. This may be as simple as applying
the specifications to the end product to see if
it does all that it is supposed to do, but more
often it involves performance testing
 9. Communicate the Solution

• Ideas need to be “sold” at this stage to clients or

management. The presentation may include the
prototypes, models, or other forms. The designer
must know the design and subject matter related to
the solution in order to effectively communicate the
features. A designer, after completing the design
process, can see how well he or she has
accomplished the goals and whether, more
development work is necessary
 Concurrent Engineering
“The simultaneous performance of product design and
process design. Typically, concurrent engineering
involves the formation of cross-functional teams.
This allows engineers and managers of different
disciplines to work together simultaneously in
developing product and process design.”
Foster, S. Thomas. Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach. Upper
Saddle River New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001.
 Concurrent Engineering 2nd Definition

“Concurrent engineering methodologies permit the

separate tasks of the product development process to
be carried out simultaneously rather than sequentially.
Product design, testing, manufacturing and process
planning through logistics, for example, are done
side-by-side and interactively. Potential problems in
fabrication, assembly, support and quality are
identified and resolved early in the design process.”
Izuchukwu, John. “Architecture and Process :The Role of Integrated Systems
in Concurrent Engineering.” Industrial Management Mar/Apr 1992: p. 19-
23.
Basic Tenets of Concurrent Engineering

-Doing things simultaneously

-Focusing on the Process

-Converting hierarchical organizations into teams

Basic Goals of Concurrent Engineering

-Dramatic improvements in time to market and costs

-Improvements to product quality and performance

-Do more with less

• Concurrent Engineering = Teamwork
-The more communication exists, the better the
product. Communication is vitally important
between all participating members and the more
ideas that come together, the better the product,
and profit, will ultimately be.

• Balances Needs
- Between customers, Suppliers, Engineers,
Marketing, and Manufacturing.
• Management
- Good mgmt is vitally important
- Encourage communication
- Strong mgmt support
- Good management can keep focus and
open lines of communication
- With weak management, CE groups tend
to lose concentration on the goal
 How it Works

• 3 Main Areas needed to successfully implement

Concurrent Engineering. All of these areas require
thought and rethinking.

1) People

2) Process

3) Technology
 How It Works
• Area 1: People
-Formation of teams
Anyone who comes in contact with, or is affected by, the
product in question should be involved on the team.
These teams usually include engineers, analysts,
manufacturers, personnel, customers, and suppliers.
-Training
Training is for the tools used in CE, usually computer
aided drafting. Another important yet overlooked
training is in non-technical areas, such as problem-
solving and conflict resolution.
 How It Works
• Area 2: Process

-Changes in the processes

-Be open to change

A large part of CE is re-engineering the product development
process. Many organizations have processes they refuse to
change, but doing so could doom them to failure. When
instituting CE, be willing to change and update the
development process in order to keep things moving
successfully.
 How It Works
• Area 3: Technology

-CAD/CAM
It’s very hard, if not impossibly, to find a CE firm that does not
utilize computer-aided drafting or computer-aided
manufacturing.

-Software. Hardware, and Networking

Like the processes however, be willing to change the software
system if a more pervasive one comes along. The choices of
hardware, software, and networking applications make CE
efforts successful, especially in today’s global, virtual business
world.
 Elements of Concurrent Engg.
 Cross-functional design teams
o Skill from functional areas are included in the teams, which
enhance quick and easy decision making and
communication with other functional units
o Functional teams must be empowered with decision making
authority
o Must have mutual respect and understanding of other’s
needs, responsibilities
 Parallel design
o Also called simultaneous engg
o Executes activities parallelly at the earliest possible time
o Manuf gp and tooling group start their work once the
product shape and specs are decided in the design stage
 Elements Contd...
 Vendor partnering
o Is a form of parallel engg.
o Tech expertise of the vendor acts as an integral member of
the cross functional design team
o Vendors are selected by bidding process after the design has
been finalized
o Aspects such as proficient knowledge in technology,
reliable delivery and reasonable cost are considered
o Vendor partnering reduces the amount of part design done
in-house, integrates vendor’s manuf expertise into design
and ensures early receipt of parts
 Computer Aided Engineering

 CAE retrieves description and geometry from a CAD

database

 It is used in almost every industry such as aerospace,

automobile manufacturing

 CAE depends on CAD

 Definition
 Computer aided engineering is an engineering analysis
performed at the computer terminal using a CAD
(Computer Aided Design) system
 What for CAE?

 CAE can be used to perform variety tests like car crash test
simulation
 Commercial and military flight simulations
 It is also used to analyze properties of different types
material used in production
 Application of computerized methods during the design of
technical systems
 It increases production efficiency and quality through
better designs
 Executives and managers heavily rely on CAE analysis
 Tool for decision making-what the product is going to look
like, its performance characteristics
 What improvements need to be made?
 CAD analysis done on computer screen
 No need to build products’ prototypes
 Analysis results as a document for product improvements
 Customer satisfaction is priority
 Product real-world performance and safety
 Products tested for any possible conditions one can think of
 The key idea is to make predictions of products’ life and
capabilities
 Provide the customers with a concept before building
expensive prototypes and pre-production units
 Conceptual design through analysis
 Optimization of the concept
 Final results of analysis help reduce future costs
 Great savings in time and money
 Ensures achievement of customer satisfaction
 Application of CAE
CAE is applied in these four main types of analysis:
 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
 Boundary Element Analysis (BEA/Acoustics)
 Kinematic/Dynamic Analysis
 Uses of CAE
 Facilitates the designer to concentrate on complex design
tasks
 Enhances faster and complete analysis of complex
problems
 Allows execution of more number of tasks
 Facilitates sharing of large information with other manuf
engineers, process planners, tool and die engineers and
purchase people
 3D modelling, 2D modelling, DBMS, Spread sheets for
numerical calculations , engg design softwares such as FEM,
QFD, creativity enhancement, decision making and
statistical modeling are effectively utilized nowadays
 Finite Element Analysis
 Finite Element Analysis can be executed on mechanical
systems to conduct static and dynamic analyses, along with
identification of natural frequencies and mode shapes
 Capabilities range from single component analysis to large
multi-disciplinary research projects
 FEA
FEA Software
 SDRC I-DEAS Master Series 6 & 7
 ANSYS
 NASTRAN
 ABAQUS
 HyperWorks Suite
 Why Should FEA Be Used?

 It allows the customer to know better about the product

before investing into building expensive prototypes and
pre-production units
 It is an effective tool to analyze problems on different
issues
 Analysis is composed of various types of testing
 Tests Conducted
 Static stiffness testing
 Modal analysis
 Impact testing
 Acoustic testing
 Valve train Dynamics
 Additional FEA Capabilities
 Composite and Nonlinear Analysis
 Viscoelastic Material Database of over 3,000 materials
 Isolation system and damping treatment design
 Forces reconstruction
 Tuned Dampers can be designed and optimized
 Constrained and free layer damping treatment design
 Nonlinear Valve train Analysis
 CFD
 Fluid flow and heat transfer optimization is essential in the
early design cycle
 CFD tools provide engineers insight into complex transient
and turbulent flow fields
 It allows analysis and provides design for engineers to
optimize component geometry for efficient fluid flow and
heat transfer
 Why Should CFD Be Used
It visually allows users to view:
1) Velocity
2) Pressure
3)Thermal conditions
in the modeled fluid fields

Properties from the fluid flow and heat transfer such as

forces, temperature and film coefficients can be used in
other analysis codes such as FEA and BEA
 Boundary Element Analysis(BEA)
 It is used to predict noise characteristics on various
mechanical systems
 When coupled with FEA, BEA is very useful in determining
the acoustical effects of structural design modifications
 It uses COMET acoustics software
 Why Should BEA be used?
 It allows the customer to predict acoustical performance of
the concept before production
 This permits design modifications, to improve the overall
acoustic characteristics without costly laboratory testing
and various prototypes to be fabricated
 BEA is used to predict and optimize the Noise, Vibration,
and Harshness (NVH) characteristics of various structures
from small components to full size power train systems and
interior vehicle cabs
 BEA Capabilities
 Sound pressure analysis
 Sound intensity analysis
 Sound power predictions
 Radiation efficiency analysis
 Subjective noise prediction (audio listening files)
 Sound quality optimization (Noise field prediction and
analysis)
 Kinematic/Dynamics Analysis

Tool used is called ADAMS

 It is the world’s most widely used mechanical system
simulation tool
 It is capable of static or dynamic analysis of motions and
forces associated with both rigid and compliant multi-
bodied large displacement non-linear motion mechanical
systems
 Kinematic/Dynamics Analysis

 Designing, development and validation of product virtually,

 Optimize the performance of product,
 Eliminate numerous costly physical prototypes, and
 Bring product to market quicker
 Why Should K/D A Be used?
Design Applications:
 Position the tie rod of a vehicle to achieve the desired toe
curve
 Determine the static and dynamic operating loads of a
vehicle suspension
 Determine the operating envelope of a moving robot arm,
or Provide an ADAMS model of a system for in house design
work
 Other Uses
Development Applications
 Sort through selection of bushings for optimal vehicle
performance,
 Determine level of damping required for machine isolation,
 Try out a prototype linkage design before physical hardware
is built, or
 Determine the trade-offs and effects of caster on steering
effort

Test Applications
 Design test fixture to input motion and loads,
 Eliminate test fixtures with virtual testing,
 Determine the durability loads of a vehicle on a virtual
road, or
 Determine if vehicle meets rollover criteria
 Codes and Standards
Necessity:
 Best practice is made available to everyone, thus ensuring safety
and efficiency
 Promotes interchangeability and compatibility
Code:
 Is a collection of laws and rules that assists a government agency
in meeting its obligation to protect the general welfare by
preventing damage to property or injury or loss of life to persons
 Tells the engineer what to do, when and under what
circumstances to do it
 Are legal requirements
 Two forms of codes:
 Performance codes: Are stated in terms of specific requirement
that is expected to be achieved
 Prescriptive codes: Are stated in terms of specific details and
leave no discretion to the designer
 EG: OSHA Regulations (Occupational Safety and Health Act)by
U.S. dept. of Labour
 Designing to codes and standards Contd…
Standard:
 Is a generally agreed-upon set of procedures, criteria,
dimensions, materials or parts
 Standards and specifications are used interchangeably
 Standard refer to generalized whereas specification refer to
specialized situation
 Standards tell an engineer how to do it and are recommendation
that have no force of law
 Standards are of three categories:
 Performance standards: For products such as seat belts
 Test method standards: Set methods for measuring properties
such as tensile strength, fracture toughness; Developed and
proposed by ASTM (American Society of Testing and Materials),
UL (Underwriters Laboratory)
 Codes of practice: Detailed design procedure for repetitive
technical problem such as piping design, heat exchangers,
pressure vessels; Developed and proposed by American Society
of Mechanical Engineers(ASME Boiler and pressure vessel code),
American Nuclear Society and Society of Automotive Engineers
• Available Standards
• AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction)
• ANSI (American National Standards Institute) – Org to
approve the standards
• ISO (International Organization for Standardization) – Org
to approve the standards
• IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) Standards
• PDES (Product Data exchange Specification) for CAD-
CAM
• Uses of Standards:
• Cost reduction
• Yields solution to multiple recurring problems
 Morphology of Design
• Morris Asimow was the first to give a detailed description of
the complete design process in what he called the
morphology of design which constitutes the seven phases of
design
 I three phases of Engg Design

Define Gather Concept Evaluation

Problem Information Generation of concepts

Problem statement Conceptual design Brainstorming Pugh concept

Benchmarking Internet Functional selection
QFD Patents decomposition Decision
PDS Trade Morphological matrices
Project planning literature chart

Conceptual Design
Product
Architecture Configuration Parametric Detail
Design Design Design
Arrangement of
physical Prelim. selection Robust design Detailed
elements matls. & mfg. Tolerances drawings
to carry out Modeling/sizing Final dimen. and
function of parts DFM specifications

Embodiment Design
 Phase I - Conceptual Design
• Conceptual design is the process by which the design is
initiated, carried to the point of creating a number of
possible solutions, and narrowed down to a single best
concept
• Also called as feasibility study
• Conceptual design is the phase that requires the greatest
creativity, involves the most uncertainty, and requires
coordination among many functions in the business
organization
 Activities that are taken under conceptual Design
 Identification of customer needs : The goal of this activity is to completely
understand the customers’ needs and to communicate them to the
design team

 Problem definition :
• The goal of this activity is to create a statement that describes what has to
be accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer
• This involves analysis of competitive products, the establishment of target
specifications, and the listing of constraints and trade-offs
• Quality function deployment (QFD) is a valuable tool for linking customer
needs with design requirements
• A detailed listing of the product requirements is called a product design
specification (PDS)

 Gathering information:
• Engineering design presents special requirements over engineering
research in the need to acquire a broad spectrum of information

 Conceptualization :
• Concept generation involves creating a broad set of concepts that
potentially satisfy the problem statement
• Team-based creativity methods, combined with efficient information
gathering, are the key activities
 Activites Contd..
 Concept selection :
• Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving into a single
preferred concept, are the activities in this step
• The process usually requires several iterations

 Refinement of the PDS :

• The product design specification is revisited after the concept has been
selected
• Certain critical values of design parameters called critical-to-quality (CTQ)
parameters and the trade-offs between cost and performance are to be
considered

 Design review :
• Before moving to the next design phase, a design review will be held to
check whether the worthiness of the design towards committed funds
• Assures that the design is physically realizable and that is economically
worthwhile
• Also the detailed product development schedule is reviewed to minimize
the product cycle time and to identify the resources in people, equipment,
and money needed to complete the project
 Phase II – Embodiment Design
• Structured development of the design concept occurs
• It is like placing flesh on the skeleton of the design concept
• An embodiment of all the main functions that must be
performed by the product must be undertaken
• Decisions are made on strength, material selection, size,
shape, and spatial compatibility
• Beyond this design phase, major changes become very
expensive
• Sometimes called preliminary design
• Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks
 product architecture
 configuration design
 parametric design
• Product architecture :
 Product architecture is concerned with dividing the overall design
system into subsystems or modules
 Arrangement of the physical components of the design and their
combination to carry out the functional duties of the design are
analyzed
• Configuration design of parts and components
 Parts are made up of features like holes, ribs, splines, and curves
 Configuring a part means to determine what features will be
present and how those features are to be arranged in space relative
to each other
 Modeling and simulation may be used to check out function and
spatial constraints
 Approximate sizes are determined to assure that the part satisfies
the PDS
 More information about materials and manufacturing are obtained
 Rapid prototyping processes may be appropriate for generating a
physical model of the part
• Parametric design of parts
• Starts with information on the configuration of the part and
aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances
• Final decisions on the material and manufacturing processes
are also established
• An important aspect of parametric design is to examine the
part, assembly, and system for design robustness
• Robustness refers to how consistently a component performs
under variable conditions in its service environment
• The methods for achieving robustness and establishing the
optimum tolerance developed by Dr. Genichi Taguchi
• Also deals with determining the aspects of the design that
could lead to failure
• Another important consideration is to design in such a way so
as to enhance manufacturability
 Phase III – Detail Design
• Here the design is brought to the stage of a complete engineering
description of a tested and producible product
• Missing information is added on the arrangement, form,
dimensions, tolerances, surface properties, materials, and
manufacturing processes of each part
• Hence the specification of a special-purpose part and a standard
part are arrived at and could be purchased from the suppliers
• List of activities completed and documents prepared in detail
design phase:
 Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing-
Computer-generated drawings that include three-dimensional CAD
models
 Verification testing of prototypes successfully completed and
verification data submitted - All critical-to-quality parameters are
confirmed to be under control - building and testing of several
preproduction versions of the product is accomplished
 Assembly drawings and assembly instructions completed - Bill of
materials for all assemblies completed
 A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes
made since the conceptual design phase prepared
 Decisions on whether to make each part internally or to buy
from an external supplier is made
 With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for
the product is carried out
 Detail design concludes with a design review before passing
on the design information to manufacturing
• Design process is not finished with the delivery of a set of
detailed engineering drawings and specifications to the
manufacturing organization
• Many thoughts and plans have to be raised as to how the
design will be manufactured, how it will be marketed, how it
will be maintained during use, and finally, how it will be
retired from service and replaced by a new, improved design
 Phase IV – Planning for Manufacture
• A method of manufacture must be established for each
component in the system
• As a first step, a process sheet is created; it contains a
sequential list of all manufacturing operations that must be
performed on the component
• Also, it specifies the form and condition of the material and
the tooling and production machines that will be used
• Information on the process sheet makes possible the
estimation of the production cost of the component
• High costs may indicate the need for a change in material or a
basic change in the design
• Close interaction with manufacturing, industrial, materials,
and mechanical engineers is highly important
• Other tasks are :
 Designing specialized tools and fixtures
 Specifying the production plant (or designing a new plant) and
laying out the production lines
• Planning the work schedules and inventory controls
(production control)
• Planning the quality assurance system
• Establishing the standard time and labor costs for each
operation
• Establishing the system of information flow necessary to
control the manufacturing operation
 Phase V – Planning for Distribution
• Important technical and business decisions must be made to
provide for the effective distribution to the consumer of the
products that have been produced
• The shipping package may be critical
• Concepts such as the shelf life of the product may also be
critical and is to be addressed in the earlier stages of the
design process
• A system of warehouses for distributing the product may have
to be designed if none exists
• The economic success of the design often depends on the skill
exercised in marketing the product
• For a consumer product, the sales effort is concentrated on
advertising in print and video media
• For highly technical products the marketing step would be a
technical activity supported by specialized sales brochures,
performance test data and technically trained sales engineers
 Phase VI – Planning for Use
• The use of the product by the consumer is important
• Considerations of how the consumer will react to the
product encompasses all steps of the design process
• As per the user’s perspective, concerns such as ease of
maintenance, durability, reliability, product safety,
convenience in use (human factors engineering),
aesthetic appeal, and economy of operation are
considered as important and are to be taken at the beg
of the design process itself
• Becomes increasingly important with the growing
concerns for consumer protection and product safety
• Acquisition of reliable data on failures, service lives and
consumer complaints provide a basis for product
improvement in the next design cycle
 Phase VII – Planning for Retirement of the product
• Final step in the design process is the disposal of the product when it has
reached the end of its useful life
• Useful life may be determined by actual deterioration and wear when the
design is no longer functional, or it may be determined by technological
obsolescence, in which a competing design performs either better or
cheaper
• In consumer products, it happens when changes in fashion or taste are
observed
• In the past, product retirement in design process was given least
importance
• This is rapidly changing due to environmental issues such as depletion of
mineral and energy resources, pollution of the air, water and land as a
result of manufacturing and technology advancement
• This has led to a study called industrial ecology
• Design for the environment also called green design, has become an
important consideration in design
• Design should include a plan for disposal in an environmentally safe way
or for the recycling of its materials or for the remanufacture or for reuse
of its components
Product life Cycle
 Product life Cycle
1. Introduction Stage: Product is new; Customer acceptance
and Sales are low; Low volume; High product cost
2. Growth Stage: knowledge and capability of the product has
reached sufficient no. of customers; Higher volume
manufacturing reduces the unit cost
3. Maturity Stage: Product is widely accepted; sales are stable
and growing at the same rate as economy; Incremental
improvements in the product is essential to face competition
and for extended life of the product; Hence ends up with cost
reduction
4. Decline Stage: Sales go down due to entry of new and better
product to cater the same need
Technology Development cycle
• Follows a S-shaped curve
• Early stage, the progress is limited by less no. of ideas
• Later a single idea can make more no. of ideas and hence the
growth is exponential
• Gradually, growth becomes linear with fundamental/key ideas
at the appropriate place
• At this stage, market applications and manuf sector develops
rapidly; Smaller firms find difficult to handle this situation
• However with time, the technology generalizes and increased
improvements are obtained with greater difficulty
• And finally the market stabilizes, manuf methods become
fixed and more capital is spent for reducing the
manufacturing cost
• Now the emphasis is on capital-based business, financial
expertise rather than technological one and the maturing tech
grows asymptotically to reach the final limit
Transfer from one technology growth curve
(current) to another developing technology
(emerging)
• Firms undergo technological discontinuity
• Change from vacuum tubes to transistors, micro-computer to
fast processor etc
• Requires change of technical skill
• Change happens when the firm is earning profits
• During the period of the existing product, a R&D team works
on a new tech and product
• When the new product emerges out and is in production, the
R&D team works on forthcoming tech and it goes on
• Product cycle time is the key factor for success
• Reduction in cycle time bet product dev and manuf enhance
its faster entry into the market
• Ideas to be introduced at right time of the dev cycle and
hence a window of opportunity is to be recognized by the
firm
 Bench Marking
• Benchmarking is a process for measuring a company’s
operations against the best practices of companies both
inside and outside of their industry
• It takes its name from the surveyor’s benchmark or reference
point from which elevations are measured
• It is a process of learning through exchange of information
• It can be applied to all aspects of a business
• It operates most effectively on a quid pro quo basis i.e., as an
exchange of information between companies that are not
direct competitors but can learn from each other’s business
operations
• Other sources for acquiring best practices may be business
partners (e.g., a major supplier to one’s company), businesses
in the same supply chain (e.g., automobile manufacturing
suppliers), companies in collaborative and cooperative groups,
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or industry consultants
 Bench Marking
• Even trade or professional associations can facilitate
benchmarking exchanges
• It requires good contacts; These are friendly and mutually
beneficial comparison of practices between two companies
• Benchmarking can be done within one’s own organizational
structure also
• Identifying intra-company best practices is one of the most
efficient ways to improve overall company performance
through benchmarking
• Even in enlightened organizations, there may be resistance to
new ideas
• The manager studies about the success of a particular
benchmarking in a diff concern which is to be applied in his
org. and tries to introduce it
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 Bench Marking
• Most common sources of resistance to benchmarking:
 Fear of being perceived as copiers
 Fear of yielding competitive advantages if information is
shared
 Arrogance. A company may feel that there is nothing useful to
be learned by looking outside of the organization
 Impatience. Companies that engage in an improvement
program often want to begin making changes immediately
• Benchmarking provides the first step in a program of
change—an assessment of a company’s relative position at
the current point in time

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