EEE3003 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING

M.JANAKI
Associate Professor,
School of Electrical Engineering.

Mobile No: 9444226403

Cabin No: TT344

Open Hrs:
Wednesday 10.00 AM to 11.00 AM
Friday 10.00 AM to 11.00 AM

Tuesday 4.00 PM to 5.00 PM

Thursday 4.00 PM to 5.00 PM
Text books

1. John J.Grainger and William D.Stevenson,Jr "Power System

Analysis", Mcgraw Hill International Editions, 2013.
2. HadiSaadat, " Power System Analysis", Tata McGraw Hill, 2015.

Reference books

1. D.P.Kothari and I.J. Nagrath, "Modern Power System

Analysis", Tata McGraw Hill, Fourth Edition, New Delhi, 2011.
2. B.R.Gupta, “Power System Analysis and Design”, S.Chand, New
Delhi, 2003.
3. S.N. Singh, “Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution”, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2002.
4. C.L.Wadhwa, “Electrical Power Systems” 5th Edition, New Age
Publications,2006.
5. V.K.MEHTA and ROHIT MEHTA, “Principles of Power System”,
S.Chand.
Module I Transmission Line Parameters

Resistance, Inductance of transmission lines, Inductance of a

single phase two wire line, Inductance of three phase lines with
symmetrical and unsymmetrical spacing-Capacitance of a single phase
two wire line-Capacitance of a three phase line with symmetrical and
unsymmetrical spacing.
 MODULE - I
Transmission Line Parameters
An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to
supply, transfer and use electric power.

1. Generation

2. Transmission

3. Distribution
Prime mover converts primary sources of energy to mechanical energy.

Alternator generates electrical energy from mechanical energy.

THERMAL POWER GENERATION
HYDRO POWER GENERATION
At the power stations, the power is produced at a relatively low voltage
between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The
generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power
station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by
the transmission system and by country) for transmission over long
distances.

Subtransmission is part of an electric power transmission system that

runs at relatively lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all
distribution substations to the high main transmission voltage, because
the equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger
substations connect with this high voltage. It is stepped down and sent to
smaller substations in towns and neighbourhoods. Subtransmission
circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a single line failure does not
cut off service to a large number of customers for more than a short time.
 The various generating stations and
distribution systems are connected through
STRUCTURE OF A POWER SYSTEM

transmission lines. This transmission system in

a state is called as ‘GRID’.
 Structure of Power System

Generation At Outskirts of the city

Distribution Transmission

Inside the city

 Power Sector at a Glance ALL INDIA
Total Installed Capacity:(As on 30.04.2017):

Thermal (MW) Renewable (MW)

Nuclear
Sector Total (MW) %
(MW)
Sub-Total Other
Coal Gas Diesel Hydro
Thermal Renewable

Central 55,245.00 7,490.83 0.00 62,735.83 6,780.00 11,651.42 0.00 81,167.25 25

State 65,145.50 7,257.95 363.93 72,767.38 0.00 29,703.00 1,963.80 104,447.28 32

Private 74,012.38 10,580.60 473.70 85,066.68 0.00 3,240.00 55,283.33 143,590.01 43

All India 194,402.88 25,329.38 837.63 220,569.88 6,780.00 44,594.42 57,260.23 329,204.53 100
 The various generating stations and distribution systems are
connected through transmission lines. This primary transmission
system in a state is called as ‘GRID’.

Different STATE GRIDS are interconnected through tie-lines, is

called as ‘REGIONAL GRID’.

Different REGIONAL GRIDS are further interconnected, is

called as ‘NATIONAL GRID’.
 MAJOR INTER REGIONAL LINKS-8000 MW CAPACITY
220 kV
220 kV Salakati
Sahupuri Dehri
Birpara

Northern Allahabad Sasaram North-eastern

Malda Bongaigaon
500 MW
400 kV
Gorakhpur/
Auraiya Singrauli
Lucknow

500 MW
Eastern
220 kV

220 kV
Malanpur Vindhyachal Korba Budhipadar

Western
Raipur Rourkela
Kolhapur 400 kV
Chandrapur Jeypore Talcher Balimela

1000 MW
500 MW 2500 MW
220 kV
220 kV

Belgaum Upper
Gazuwaka Kolar
Ramagundam Sileru

Southern
There are two types of Transmission

1. A.C Transmission

2. D.C Transmission

Advantages of D.C Transmission

1. Requires only two lines (+ve and –ve)
2. No inductance, capacitance effect
3. No skin effect
4. Less voltage drop

Disadvantages of D.C Transmission

1. Power can not be generated at high D.C voltage
2. Step up or step down of D.C voltage can not be done
Advantages of A.C Transmission
1. Power can be generated at high voltage
2. Step up or step down of A.C voltage can be done

Disadvantages of A.C Transmission

1. Requires more copper material
2. Inductance, capacitance effects are present
3. skin effect
4. voltage drop is more
In A.C transmission, high voltage transmission is preferred due to the
following reasons

1. Reduces volume of conductor material

2. Increases transmission efficiency
3. Decreases line drop

Limitation
1. Increased cost of insulation, transformer and switchgear
equipments.
Electric power can be transmitted in two ways

1. Overhead lines
2. Underground cables

Underground cables are not preferred for long distance transmission

due to insulation problem and installation cost.
Types of transmission line conductor
1. Stranded conductor: This type of conductor is used to
increase the flexibility of transmission line, which is composed of two or
more strands.

2. Bundled conductor: In high-voltage transmission lines, there

may be more than one stranded conductor per phase (bundle
configuration) to increase the current capability and to reduce corona
effect discharge.
 Types of Transmission system
1. Single phase transmission system 2. Three phase transmission system
 Transmission system with Bundled conductors
1. Single phase transmission system with bundled conductors
(four stranded conductors/phase)

Earth wire is used to shield the phase conductors from lighting strokes
Vibration damper is the spacer between conductors in one phase.
 Transmission system Bundled conductors
2. Three phase transmission system with bundled conductors
(two stranded conductors/phase)
 To carry more than one circuit

ROW

To transmit bulk power within the existing ROW

 A single-circuit transmission line carries conductors for only
one circuit. For a three-phase system, this implies that each tower
supports three conductors.

A double-circuit transmission line consists of two circuits.

For three-phase systems, each tower supports and insulates six
conductors.

Double circuits can carry more power. Also, double circuits

introduce a level of redundancy.
 An A.C transmission line has three parameters uniformly
distributed along the transmission line

1. Resistance
2. Inductance
3. Capacitance

Equivalent Circuit of Long Transmission line

 An A.C transmission line has three parameters uniformly
distributed along the transmission line

1. Resistance
2. Inductance
3. Capacitance

Equivalent circuit of a transmission line

Resistance : Opposition offered by the transmission line to the flow of
current.

Inductance : When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a

changing flux is set up around it. Due to this changing flux linkages, the
conductor carries inductance.


Inductance L in henry
I

 Flux linkages in Wb-turns

I Current in amps
Capacitance : Any two conductors separated by an insulating material
has capacitance effect.
Across two overhead transmission lines, air is the insulation, so there
exist a capacitance.

q
Capacitance C in farad
V
q Charge on the conductor in coulomb

V Potential difference between the conductors in volts

Transmission line parameters
with solid conductors

• Inductance
• Capacitance
 Inductance
Flux Linkages : 
L
I
Due to

1. Single current carrying conductor – Internal and External flux

2. Two or more (Parallel) current carrying conductors

Flux Linkages due to Single current carrying conductor

Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radirus r metres

and carrying a current I amperes (r.m.s.) as shown in Fig. This current
will set up magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force will exist inside
the conductor as well as outside the conductor. Both these fluxes will
contribute to the inductance of the conductor.


L
I
1(a). Due to internal flux:
According to Ampere’s law, m.m.f around
any closed path is equal to the current
enclosed. From this, the magnetic field
intensity at a point ‘x’ metres from the
centre is
Ix
Hx 
2x
Current density at ‘x’ is

Ix dΦ – flux due to the section dx

dΨ – flux linking Ix
x 2
current density is the electric
Current density at ‘r’ is current per unit area of cross section.
It is defined as a vector whose
I magnitude is the electric current per
cross-sectional area at a given point in
r 2 space
For uniform current density

I Ix
 2
r 2
x
x 2 x2
Ix  2 I  2 I is the fraction of total current (I) at x.
r r
The magnetic field intensity at a point ‘x’ metres from the centre is

1 x2 x
Hx  . 2 I I Amp-turns/m
2x r 2r 2
Flux density Bx

B x  0  r H x

x
B x  0  r I Wb/m2
2r 2

Considering 1m length, dx thickness of the conductor, flux is given by

d  Bx .1.dx

0  r xI
 dx Wb
2r 2
From this, the flux linking the section dx is given by

x2
Flux linkage d  2 d 
r
Relative permeability
x 0 xI
2
r  1
 2. dx For non-magnetic

r 2r 2 materials

0 x I 3
 dx
2r 4
Total flux linkages from centre upto the conductor surface is given by

0 x I
r 3
 int   dx
0 2r
4

0 I
 Wb-turns per metre
8
1(b). Due to External flux: External flux
extends from surface of the conductor to
infinity.

The magnetic field intensity at a point ‘x’

metres from the centre is

I
Hx 
2x

magnetic flux density

0 I
B x  0 H x  Wb/m2
2x
Considering 1m length, dx thickness of cylindrical shell, the flux is
given by
0 I
flux d  Bx .1.dx  dx
2x
This flux links the total current in the conductor

0 I
d  d  dx
2x
Total flux linkages due to external flux


0 I
 ext  dx
r
2x
2. Flux linkages in parallel current carrying conductors
Flux linkages in conductor ‘A’ due to its own current IA

Int Ext
1. Inductance of a Single Phase Two-wire Line

Loop inductance = sum of inductances of two lines = LA + LB

A
Inductance of line ‘A’ LA 
IA
A  Flux linkages in Wb-turns

IA  Current in amps
Flux linking with conductor ‘A’

= due to its own internal & external flux

+
due to external flux of conductor ‘B’

= +
Inductance of a single phase circuit in alternative form
Where r’ is the radius of fictitious conductor ( imaginary conductor, not
the existing conductor) with no internal flux, but inductance is same as
the actual conductor.

The term r’ = 0.7788r is called as Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)

or Self-GMD (Ds)
 2. Inductance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line

If load is balanced

IA + IB + IC = 0
 A
Inductance of line ‘A’ LA 
IA
A  Flux linkages in Wb-turns

IA  Current in amps

Flux linking with conductor ‘A’

= due to its own internal & external flux

+
due to external flux of conductor ‘B’
+
due to external flux of conductor ‘C’

= + +
2(a). SYMMETRICAL SPACING

Three conductors are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle.

2(b). UNSYMMETRICAL SPACING

In case of unsymmetrical spacing distances between the conductors

are not same. Therefore flux linkages and inductance of conductors
also are not same. This results in unequal voltage drop in each phase
and at the receiving end phase voltages will not be same.

In order to have equal voltage drop and same average

inductance, the conductors are transposed (interchanging the
position ) at regular intervals.
For balanced load

IA + IB + IC = 0

Taking line currents as

Substitute IA, IB and IC values

Separate real and imaginary terms
(d1d 2 d3 )1/ 3 is called as Mutual-GMD (Dm)

Or equivalent equilateral spacing.

 A single-circuit transmission line carries conductors for only
one circuit. For a three-phase system, this implies that each tower
supports three conductors.

A double-circuit transmission line consists of two circuits.

For three-phase systems, each tower supports and insulates six
conductors.

Double circuits can carry more power. Also, double circuits

introduce a level of redundancy.
Single phase transmission - single circuit
Inductance/conductor/m

Three phase transmission - single circuit – Equal spacing

Inductance/phase/m

Three phase transmission - single circuit – Unqual spacing

Inductance/phase/m
 Why transposed?

To get the same average spacing over some length

Where the average spacing is the

root mean of three distances.

(d1d 2 d3 )1/ 3
is called as GMD or equivalent
equilateral spacing.
Three phase transmission Three phase transmission
- Single circuit - Double circuit

Inductance/phase/m
GMD=(GMDab*GMDbc*GMDca)1/3

GMR=(GMRa*GMRb*GMRc)1/3
 Unequal GMR and GMD

GMDab GMDbc

GMRa GMRb GMRc

GMDca
When the physical structure of transmission system is not in equilateral
triangle, the transposition of conductors is done to get the same average radius and
distance.
GMR and GMD are radius and distance of
GMR equivalent equilateral triangle.

GMD=(GMDab*GMDbc*GMDca)1/3

GMR=(GMRa*GMRb*GMRc)1/3

GMD The transposed system can give the

inductance of equivalent equilateral
GMR GMR triangle with GMR and GMD.
GMR of one phase
= (Product of n2 distances between conductors within the phase)1/ n2

Where n = number of circuits

GMR=(GMRa*GMRb*GMRc)1/p

Where p = number of phases

p = 2 for single phase system (phase line, neutral line)

p = 3 for three phase system

GMD between two phases
= (Product of n2 distances between conductors in different phases)1/ n2

Where n = number of circuits

GMD=(GMDab*GMDbc*GMDca)1/L

Where L = number of phase-phase combinations

L = 1 for single phase system

L = 3 for three phase system

Three Phase line (double circuit)

(i) Self-GMD (Ds)

where

Daa is the self-GMD of conductor ‘a’ = 0.7788r

Daa’ is the distance between conductors a and a’

(ii) Mutual-GMD (Dm)

where
1. A single phase transmission line has two parallel conductors 3 m
apart, the radius of each conductor being 1 cm. Calculate the loop
inductance per km length of the line if the material of the conductor is
(i) copper (ii) steel with relative permeability of 100.

Ans:

(i) With copper, Loop inductance/km = 2.38 mH

(ii) With Steel, Loop inductance/km =12.28 mH

2. A 20 km single phase line has two parallel conductors separated by 1·5
metres. The diameter of each conductor is 0·823 cm. If the conductor has
a resistance of 0·311 Ω/km, find the loop impedance of this line at 50 Hz.
[Ans: 19.86 Ω]

3. The three conductors of a 3-phase line are arranged at the corners of a

triangle of sides 4, 5 and 6 metres. Calculate inductance per km of the
each conductor when conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter
of each line conductor is 2 cm.
[Ans: 1.285 mH]
4. Fig shows three phase double circuit overhead line. Conductor radius
is 1.3 cm. Calculate the inductance/phase/km.
 =0.292 m = Ds3

Ds2 = 0.246 m

Ds = 3 DS1DS 2 DS 3 = 0.275 m
 = 4.48 m = DBC

DCA = 6 m

Dm = 3 DAB DBC DCA = 4.94 m

Inductance/phase/m = = 5.7 X 10-7 H

Inductance/phase/km = 0.57 mH
5. Fig shows three phase double circuit overhead line. Conductor radius is
0.75 cm. Calculate the inductance/phase/km

Inductance/phase/km = 0.623 mH
6. Two conductors of a single phase line, each of 1 cm diameter, are
arranged in a vertical plane with one conductor mounted 1 m above the
other. A second identical line is mounted at the same height as the first
and spaced horizontally 0·25 m apart from it. The two upper and the two
lower conductors are connected in parallel. Determine the inductance per
km of the resulting double circuit line.

Inductance per conductor per metre

= 2 × 10−7 logeDm/Ds
= 2 × 10−7 loge 50·74/6·23 H
= 0·42 × 10−6 H

∴ Loop inductance per km of the line

= 2 × 0·42 × 10−6 × 1000 H
= 0·84 mH
Capacitance : Any two conductors separated by an insulating material
has capacitance effect.
Across two overhead transmission lines, air is the insulation, so there
exist a capacitance.

q
Capacitance C in farad
V
q Charge on the conductor in coulomb

V Potential difference between the conductors in volts

According to Gauss’s law, The total of the electric flux out of a closed
surface is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.
 Electric Potential
The electric potential at a point due to a charge is the work
done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. The
concept of electric potential is extremely important for the
determination of capacitance in a circuit since the latter is defined as
the charge per unit potential.

(i) Potential at a charged single conductor.

Consider a long straight

cylindrical conductor A of radius r
metres. Let the conductor operate at
such a potential (VA) that charge QA
coulombs per metre exists on the
conductor. It is desired to find the
expression for VA. The electric
intensity E at a distance x from the
centre of the conductor in air is given
by:
Potential difference between conductor A and infinity distance
(ii) Potential at a conductor in a group of charged
conductors.
Consider a group of long
straight conductors A, B, C etc.
operating at potentials such that
charges QA, QB, QC etc. coulomb
per metre length exist on the
respective conductors. Let us
find the potential at A (i.e. VA)
in this arrangement. Potential at
A due to its own charge (i.e. QA)
Overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane is
 Capacitance of a Single Phase Two wire Line

The total p.d. between conductor A

and neutral “infinite” plane is

Since the unlike charges attract each other, the potential difference
between the conductors is
Line-1
Capacitance between two conductors
Ic = series of two capacitances (w.r.t neutral)

Line-2
 Capacitance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line
(i) Symmetrical spacing.
(ii) Unsymmetrical spacing.
 Single phase transmission - single circuit
Capacitance/conductor/m

Three phase transmission - single circuit – Equal spacing

Capacitance/phase/m

Three phase transmission - single circuit – Unqual spacing

Capacitance/phase/m
Three phase transmission Three phase transmission
- Single circuit - Double circuit

GMD=(GMDab*GMDbc*GMDca)1/3

GMR=(GMRa*GMRb*GMRc)1/3
 EFFECT OF EARTH ON LINE CAPACITANCE
The electric flux lines due to an isolated (effect of earth neglected)
positively charged conductor emanate from the conductor and terminate
on to an imaginary conductor placed at infinity.

If we assume that the earth is a perfect conductor in the form of a

horizontal plane of infinite extent, we realize that the electric field of
charged conductors above the earth is not the same as it would be if the
equipotential surface of earth were not present.

The capacitance of transmission line is affected by the presence of

earth. Because of earth, electric field of a line is reduced. For this consider
a single phase line having 2 conductors as shown in the Fig. 1.

A fictitious conductor is placed below each conductor of the same

size and shape as the overhead conductor lying directly below the original
conductor at a distance equal to twice the distance of the conductor above
the plane of ground. If the earth is removed and a charge equal and
opposite to that an overhead conductor is assumed on the fictitious
conductor, the plane midway between conductor and its image is an
equipotential surface and occupies the same position as the equipotential
surface of earth. This fictitious conductor is called image conductor having
the charge opposite to that of overhead conductor.
qa qb

qb qa
But qb = - qa

Comparing above equation with expression for capacitance of single

phase line without considering the effect of earth, we can see that
earth tries to increase the capacitance of line by small amount. But the
effect is negligible if the conductors are high above ground compared
to distances between them.
1. A single phase transmission line has two parallel conductors 1·5
metres apart, the diameter of each conductor being 0·5 cm. Calculate
line to neutral capacitance for a line 80 km long.
[line capacitance = 3.48 μF]

8.854 X 10-12 F/m

2. A 200 km, 3-phase transmission line has its conductors placed at the
corners of an equilateral triangle of 2·5 m side. The radius of each
conductor is 1 cm. Calculate :
(i) line to neutral capacitance of the line,
(ii) charging current per phase if the line is maintained at 66 kV, 50 Hz.

[2.02 μF], [24.2 A]

3. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has conductors placed in a
horizontal plane 4·56 m apart. Conductor diameter is 22·4 mm. If the line
length is 100 km, Calculate the charging current per phase, assuming
complete transposition.
[21.345 A]

4. Three conductors of a 3-phase overhead line are arranged in a

horizontal plane 6 m apart. The diameter of each conductor is 1·24 cm.
Find the capacitance of each conductor to neutral per 100 km of the line.
[0.785 μF]
5. The three conductors of a 3-φ line are arranged at the corners of a
right angled isosceles triangle. If each equal side of this triangle is 2m,
find line-to-neutral capacitance per km. Take the diameter of each
conductor as 1·24 cm. The conductors are transposed at regular intervals.
[0·0094 µF/km]
The current flow is not uniform in a conductor due to

1. Skin effect

2. Proximity effect

Disadvantages:

1. Power loss due to increased effective resistance

2. ….
 SKIN EFFECT

An alternating current in a
conductor produces an alternating
magnetic field in and around the
conductor. When the intensity of current
in a conductor changes, the magnetic
field also changes. The change in the
magnetic field, in turn, creates an
electric field which opposes the change
in current intensity. This opposing
electric field is called “counter-
electromotive force” (counter EMF). The
counter EMF is strongest at the center of
the conductor, and forces the conducting
electrons to the outside of the conductor,
as shown in the diagram on the right.
 SKIN EFFECT contd
Skin effect is the tendency of an
alternating electric current (AC) to
distribute itself within a conductor with the
current density being largest near the
surface of the conductor, decreasing at
greater depths.
The electric current flows mainly at
the "skin" of the conductor, between the
outer surface and a level called the skin
depth.
The skin effect causes the effective
resistance of the conductor to increase at
higher frequencies where the skin depth is
smaller, thus reducing the effective cross-
section of the conductor.
The skin effect is due to opposing
eddy currents induced by the changing
magnetic field resulting from the
alternating current.
The skin effect depends on following factors
1. Nature of material
2. Diameter of wire
3. Frequency of supply
4. Shape of wire.

The skin effect is quite significant for large, solid

conductors even at a frequency of 50 Hz.

With increase in diameter of wire, the skin effect increases.

Similarly as frequency increases, the skin effect increases.

If we have stranded conductor rather than solid

conductor then the skin effect is less. It can be seen that when
supply frequency is less than 50 Hz and conductor diameter is less than
1 cm then skin effect is negligible. In large conductors at power
frequencies the skin effect is a significant factor.
Proximity Effect
The current distribution may be non-uniform because of another effect known
as proximity effect.
Consider a two wire line as shown in the Fig.

Let each of the line conductor is assumed to be divided into 3

sections having equal cross sectional area. Three parallel loops are
formed by the pairs xx', yy' and zz'. The flux linking loop xx' is least
and it increases for the remaining loops. Thus the inductance of inner
loop is less. Thus the current density is highest at inner edges of
the conductor. Due to this non-uniform distribution of current, the
effective conductor resistance increases. As the distance between the
conductors goes on reducing, this distribution of current becomes
more and more non-uniform.
For normal spacing of overhead lines this proximity effect is
negligible. For underground cables this effect is significant as the
conductors are located close to each other.
The proximity effect also depends on the same factors as that of
skin effect.
 Composite or Stranded conductors
High voltage transmission lines use composite conductors, which is
composed of two or more strands.

Single-phase transmission line

1.
a.

b.
2.
3. Calculate inductance and capacitance per phase of a transmission
consisting 50mm2 ‘Hazel’ AAAC conductor. The conductors are
composed of 7 strands of aluminium alloy with diameter 3.3mm. The
inter-phase spacing is 50cm as shown fig.

a b

Inductance/phase/m = 84.8 mH/km

 BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
At voltages above 230 kV (extra high voltage) and with circuits
with only one conductor per phase, the corona effect becomes more
excessive. Associated with this phenomenon is a power loss as well as
interference with communication links. Corona is the direct result of
high-voltage gradient at the conductor surface. The gradient can be
reduced considerably by using more than one conductor per phase.
The conductors are in close proximity compared with the spacing
between phases. A line such as this is called a bundle-conductor line.
The bundle consists of two or more conductors (subconductors)
symmetrically arranged in configuration as shown in Figure.
Another important advantage of bundling is the reduction in line
reactances, both series and shunt. The analysis of bundle-conductor
lines is a specific case of the general multiconductor configuration
problem.

Examples of bundled arrangements.

 d1 d2

A B d3 C

GMR

d1 d2

A B C

d3
 D3

D1 D2

GMR d1 d2

d3
 d1 d2

GMR
d3

d1 d2

A B C

d3
4.
Enter radius of the conductor
=0.080914/0.7788
Enter number of phases =3
Enter number of circuits =2
Enter number of conductors/bundle
=1
Enter distances for GMR calculation
Enter Ds distance 2
=17.897
Enter Ds distance 3
=17.897

GMR_phase =

1.2034
Enter Ds distance 6
=16.5
Enter Ds distance 7
=16.5

GMR_phase =

1.2034 1.1555

Enter Ds distance 10
=17.897
Enter Ds distance 11
=17.897

GMR_phase =

1.2034 1.1555 1.2034

GMR_final =

1.1872
Enter distances for GMD calculation
Enter Dm distance 1
=7.5208
Enter Dm distance 2
=15.89
Enter Dm distance 3
=15.429
Enter Dm distance 4
=6.8007

GMD_phph =

10.582
Enter Dm distance 5
=6.8007
Enter Dm distance 6
=15.89
Enter Dm distance 7
=15.429
Enter Dm distance 8
=7.5208

GMD_phph =

10.582 10.582
Enter Dm distance 9
=13.521
Enter Dm distance 10
=11
Enter Dm distance 11
=12.5
Enter Dm distance 12
=13.521

GMD_phph =

10.582 10.582 12.592

GMD_final =

11.213

Inductance per phase in mH/kilo-

metre = 4.491057e-01
5.
 Transmission systems - Mechanical design
Types of Conductors
When the conductors are used in transmission system for bulk
power transfer, then they should fulfill following requirements.

1. They should have low weight.

2. They should have high tensile and fatigue strength.
3. They must have high conductivity.
4. They should have low co-efficient of expansion, low corona loss.
5. They should have less resistance and low cost.

Thus based on conductivity, tensile strength, fatigue strength,

corona loss, local conditions and cost, conductors are selected for a
particular line.
The conductors used in practice are made up from the
materials such as copper, aluminium and their alloys.
 The advantages of using aluminium conductors over copper
conductors are given below.
1. They have low cost.
2. Less resistance and corona loss.
3. Less weight.
But aluminium has less tensile strength, high co-efficient
of expansion and large area which restricts its use alone as a
conductor.
In order to increase the tensile strength of a conductor, one or
more central conductors of different materials are used. These
materials give high tensile strength. The different types of aluminium
conductors used in power systems with full forms of their
abbreviations are as given below.

ACSR : - Aluminium conductor with steel reinforcment.

AAC : - All aluminium conductor.
AAAC : - All aluminium alloy conductor.
ACAR : - Aluminium conductor with alloy reinforcement.
Aluminium Conductor with Steel Reinforcement

The mechanical strength that is obtained from conductor made

up from all aluminium. This difficulty can be overcome by adding steel
core to the conductor. The cross section of this conductor is as shown in
the Fig.

The steel core does not contribute to conduction of

current practically. The current carrying capacity and resistance of
this conductor is dependent on conductivity of aluminium.
 The ACSR conductors are more commonly used as they have
following advantages.
1. Due to high mechanical strength and tensile strength,
the line span can be increased. The sag is small. So shorter supports
are required for line. It is also possible to have longer spans for a given
sag. Due to smaller supports, breakdown possibility is low. Insulators
and other fittings needed are also less.
2. They have low corona loss.
3. Skin effect is less.
4. These conductors are inexpensive as compared to copper
conductors having equal resistance without reduction in efficiency,
useful life span and durability.
The disadvantage with ACSR conductor is difficult to make splices
and dead ends. There is a possibility of corrosion due to
electromechanical action between aluminium and steel core. The
service conditions decide corrosion rate. This is higher in industrial and
coastal areas.
All Aluminium Alloy Conductor (AAAC)
The conductor made from aluminium alloys are suitable in urban
areas as they provide better tensile strength and condcutivity. These
alloys are known with different names in various countries. Some of
these alloys are costly as they are heat treated. One of the alloys of
aluminium is known as silmalec which contains 0.5% od silicon, 0.5 %
of magnesium and rest of aluminium. Due to this there is improvement
in conductivity and mechanical strength.

Aluminium conductor with alloy reinforcement (ACAR Condcutor)

In such conductor, the central core is made up from aluminium
alloy which is surrounded by layers of aluminium conductors. The
conductivity is better and strength to weight ratio is equal to ACSR
conductor having same diameter. As compared to ACSR conductor,
ACAR conductor is smaller in size and lower in weight for the same
electrical capacity.
 Line Supports

The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are

various types of poles and towers called line supports. In general, the
line supports should have the following properties :

(i) High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors

and wind loads etc.
(ii) Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
(iii) Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
(iv) Longer life.
(v) Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.

The line supports used for transmission and distribution of

electric power are of various types including wooden poles, steel poles,
R.C.C. poles and lattice steel towers.
1. Wooden poles. These are made of seasoned wood (sal or chir) and
are suitable for lines of moderate X-sectional area and of relatively
shorter spans, say upto 50 metres. Such supports are cheap, easily
available, provide insulating properties and, therefore, are widely used
for distribution purposes in rural areas as an economical proposition.

The main objections to wooden supports are :

(i) tendency to rot below the ground level
(ii) comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)
(iii) cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
(iv) less mechanical strength and (v) require periodical inspection.

2. Steel poles. The steel poles are often used as a substitute for
wooden poles. They possess greater mechanical strength, longer life
and permit longer spans to be used. Such poles are generally used for
distribution purposes in the cities. This type of supports need to be
galvanised or painted in order to prolong its life. The steel poles are of
three types viz., (i) rail poles (ii) tubular poles and (iii) rolled steel
joints.
3. RCC poles. The reinforced concrete poles have become very popular
as line supports in recent years. They have greater mechanical
strength, longer life and permit longer spans than steel poles. Moreover,
they give good outlook, require little maintenance and have good
insulating properties. Fig. shows R.C.C. poles for single and double
circuit.
The main difficulty with the use of these poles is the high cost
of transport owing to their heavy weight. Therefore, such poles are
often manufactured at the site in order to avoid heavy cost of
transportation.

4. Steel towers. In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete

poles are used for distribution purposes at low voltages, say upto 11 kV.
However, for long distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers
are invariably employed. Steel towers have greater mechanical
strength, longer life, can withstand most severe climatic
conditions and permit the use of longer spans.
 PEER TUTORING QUESTIONS

1. A 200 km, 3-phase transmission line has its conductors placed at the
corners of an equilateral triangle of 2·5 m side. The radius of each
conductor is 1 cm. Calculate :
(i) line to neutral capacitance of the line,
(ii) charging current per phase if the line is maintained at 66 kV, 50 Hz.
[2.02 μF], [24.2 A]

2. The three conductors of a 3-phase line are arranged at the corners of

a triangle of sides 4, 5 and 6 metres. Calculate inductance per km of the
each conductor when conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter
of each line conductor is 2 cm.
[Ans: 1.285 mH]
3. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, overhead transmission line delivers 10 MW at 0·8
p.f. lagging and at 66 kV. The resistance and inductive reactance of
the line per phase are 10 Ω and 20 Ω respectively while capacitance
admittance is 4 × 10−4 siemen. Calculate :

(i) the sending end current (ii) sending end voltage (line-to-line)
(iii) sending end power factor (iv) transmission efficiency
Use nominal T method.

[(i) 100 A (ii) 69·8 kV (iii) 0·852 (iv) 97·5%]

4. a) Derive the expression for the effect of earth on line capacitance.

b) A single phase line 40 km long consisting of two parallel conductors

each 5 mm in diameter and 1.5 m apart. The height of the conductors
above ground is 7 m. Find the capacitance by a) neglecting the ground
effect and b) considering the ground effect. Compare the results.
[a) C = 0.1737 μF, b) C = 0.1738 μF]

+
3. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 100 km transmission line has the following
constants ;
Resistance/phase/km = 0·1 Ω
Reactance/phase/km = 0·5 Ω
Susceptance/phase/km = 10−5 siemen

If the line supplies a load of 20 MW at 0·9 p.f. lagging at 66 kV

at the receiving end, calculate by using nominal π method :

(i) sending end current (ii) line value of sending end voltage
(iii) sending end power factor (iv) regulation
[(i) 177·6 A (ii) 76kV (iii) 0·905 lag (iv) 15·15%]