UNIT 2- TRANSFORMERS

• Construction - Principle Of Operation - Equivalent Circuit Parameters - Phasor

Diagrams, Losses
• Testing
• Efficiency And Voltage Regulation-all Day Efficiency
• Sumpner’s Test, Per Unit Representation
• Inrush Current
• Three Phase Transformers-connections
• Scott Connection
• Phasing Of Transformer
• Parallel Operation Of Three Phase Transformers-auto Transformer
• Tap Changing Transformers
• Tertiary Winding.
What is transformer

• A transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical power

is transferred from one alternating current circuit to another electrical circuit
• There is no electrical contact between them
• The desire change in voltage or current without any change in frequency
• Symbolically the transformer denoted as
NOTE :

It works on the principle of mutual induction

Structure of transformer

• The transformer two inductive coils ,these are electrical

separated but linked through a common magnetic current circuit
• These two coils have a high mutual induction
• One of the two coils is connected of alternating voltage .this
coil in which electrical energy is fed with the help of source
called primary winding (P) shown in fig.
• The other winding is connected to a load the electrical energy is
transformed to this winding drawn out to the load .this winding
is called secondary winding(S) shown in fig.
• The primary and secondary coil wound on a ferromagnetic
metal core
• The function of the core is to transfer the changing magnetic
flux from the primary coil to the secondary coil
• The primary has N1 no of turns and the secondary has N2 no of
turns the of turns plays major important role in the function of
transformer
Working principle
• The transformer works in the principle of mutual induction

“The principle of mutual induction states that when the two coils are
inductively coupled and if the current in coil change uniformly then the
e.m.f. induced in the other coils. This e.m.f can drive a current when a
closed path is provide to it.”

• When the alternating current flows in the primary coils, a

changing magnetic flux is generated around the primary coil.
• The changing magnetic flux is transferred to the secondary coil
through the iron core
• The changing magnetic flux is cut by the secondary coil, hence
induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil
• Now if load is connected to a secondary winding, this e.m.f
drives a current through it
• The magnitude of the output voltage can be controlled by the
ratio of the no. of primary coil and secondary coil

The frequency of mutually induced e.m.f as same

that of the alternating source which supplying to the
primary winding b
Construction of transformer
• These are two basic of transformer construction
• Magnetic core
• Windings or coils
• Magnetic core
• The core of transformer either square or rectangular type in size
• It is further divided into two parts vertical and horizontal
• The vertical portion on which coils are wounds called limb
while horizontal portion is called yoke. these parts are
• Core is made of laminated core type constructions, eddy current
losses get minimize.
• Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5mm)
are used
winding
• Conducting material is used in the winding of the transformer
• The coils are used are wound on the limbs and insulated from
each other
• The two different windings are wounds on two different limbs
• The leakage flux increases which affects the performance and
efficiency of transformer
• To reduce the leakage flux it is necessary that the windings
should be very close to each other to have high mutual
induction
Core type construction

 In this one magnetic circuit and cylindrical coils are used

 Normally L and T shaped laminations are used
 Commonly primary winding would on one limb while
secondary on the other but performance will be reduce
 To get high performance it is necessary that other the two
winding should be very close to each other
Shell type construction

• In this type two magnetic circuit are used

• The winding is wound on central limbs
• For the cell type each high voltage winding lie between two
voltage portion sandwiching the high voltage winding
• Sub division of windings reduces the leakage flux
• Greater the number of sub division lesser the reactance
• This type of construction is used for high voltage
 Losses in transformer

• Copper losses :
It is due to power wasted in the form of I2Rdue to resistance of primary and
secondary. The magnitude of copper losses depend upon the current flowing
through these coils.

The iron losses depend on the supply voltage while the copper depend
on the current .the losses are not dependent on the phase angle between
current and voltage .hence the rating of the transformer is expressed as
a product o f voltage and current called VA rating of transformer. It is
not expressed in watts or kilowatts. Most of the timer, is rating is
expressed in KVA.
 Hysteresis loss :
During magnetization and demagnetization ,due to hysteresis
effect some energy losses in the core called hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss :
The leakage magnetic flux generates the E.M.F in the core
produces current is called of eddy current loss.
Ideal V/S practical transformer

• A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies the following properties, but no

transformer is ideal in practice.
• It has no losses
• Windings resistance are zero
• There is no flux leakage
• Small current is required to produce the magnetic field

While the practical transformer has windings resistance , some leakage flux and
has lit bit losses
 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

The losses that occur in transformers have to be accounted for in any

accurate model of transformer behavior.
1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional
to the square of the current in the windings.
2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in
the core of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the
voltage applied to the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement
of the magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle. They are a
complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes which escape the core and pass through only
one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes
produce a self-inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the
effects of this inductance must be accounted for.
The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Modeling the copper losses: resistive losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the core, represented in the equivalent circuit by RP and RS.
Modeling the leakage fluxes: primary leakage flux is proportional to the
primary current IP and secondary leakage flux is proportional to the
secondary current IS, represented in the equivalent circuit by XP (=fLP/IP) and
XS (=fLS/IS).
Modeling the core excitation: Im is proportional to the voltage applied to the
core and lags the applied voltage by 90o. It is modeled by XM.
Modeling the core loss current: Ih+e is proportional to the voltage applied to
the core and in phase with the applied voltage. It is modeled by RC.
The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Although the previous equivalent circuit is an accurate model of a transformer,
it is not a very useful one. To analyze practical circuits containing transformers,
it is normally necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a
single voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to
its primary side or to its secondary side in problem solutions.

Figure (a) is the equivalent

circuit of the transformer
referred to its primary side.

Figure (b) is the equivalent

circuit referred to its secondary
side.
Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

It is possible to experimentally determine the parameters of the

approximate the equivalent circuit. An adequate approximation of
these values can be obtained with only two tests….

• open-circuit test
• short-circuit test
Circuit Parameters: Open-Circuit Test

• Transformer's secondary winding is open-circuited

• Primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage. All the
input current must be flowing through the excitation branch of the
transformer.
• The series elements Rp and Xp are too small in comparison to RC and
XM to cause a significant voltage drop, so essentially all the input
voltage is dropped across the excitation branch.
• Input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are
measured.
Circuit Parameters: Open-Circuit Test

The magnitude of the excitation admittance:

I
YE  oc
Voc

The open-circuit power factor and power factor angle:

Poc 1  Poc 
PF  cos   or ,   cos  
Voc I oc  oc oc 
V I

The power factor is always lagging for a transformer, so the current will
lag the voltage by the angle . Therefore, the admittance YE is:

1 1 I
YE  j  oc   cos 1  PF 
RC X M Voc
Circuit Parameters: Short-Circuit Test

• Transformer's secondary winding is short-circuited

• Primary winding is connected to a fairly low-voltage source.
• The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short-circuited
windings is equal to its rated value.
• Input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are
measured.
• Excitation current is negligible, since the input voltage is very low.
Thus, the voltage drop in the excitation branch can be ignored. All the
voltage drop can be attributed to the series elements in the circuit.
Circuit Parameters: Short-Circuit Test

The magnitude of the series impedance:

V
Z SE  sc
I sc

The short-circuit power factor and power factor angle:

Psc  P 
PF  cos   or ,   cos 1  sc 
Vsc I sc Vsc I sc 

Therefore the series impedance is:

Z SE  Req  jX eq

   V
 R p  a 2 Rs  j X p  a 2 X s  sc  cos 1 PF 
I sc

It is possible to determine the total series impedance, but there is no easy

way to split the series impedance into the primary and secondary
components. These tests were performed on the primary side, so, the
circuit impedances are referred to the primary side.
Transformer Voltage Regulation
Because a real transformer has series impedance within it, the output voltage
of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains
constant. The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the
magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load.

V no  load   Vs  full  load 

%Voltage Re gulation  s  100

Vs full  load 

V p no  load   V p  full  load 

  100
V p  full  load 

Referred to the primary side

Transformer Efficiency

Power Output

Power Input
Power Input  Losses

Power Input
Losses
1
Power Input
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss
1
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss  V s I s cos 

Usually the efficiency for a power transformer is between 0.9 to 0.99.

The higher the rating of a transformer, the greater is its efficiency.
Sumpner's Test
The Sumpner's test is another method of
determining efficiency, regualtion and heating
under load conditions.
 The O.C. and S.C. tests give us the equivalent
circuit parameters but ca not give heating
information under various load conditions.
 The Sumpner's test gives heating information
also. In O.C. test, there is no load on the
transformer while in S.C. circuit test also only
fractional load gets applied. In all in O.C. and
S.C. tests, the loading conditions are absent.
• Hence the results are inaccurate.
• In Sumpner's test, actual loading conditions are
simulated hence the results obtained are much
more accurate.
• Thus Sumpner;s test is much improved method of
predetermining regulation and efficiency than
O.C. and S.C. tests. The Sumpner's test requires
two identical transformers.
• Both the transformers are connected to the
supply such that one transformer is loaded on the
other.
 Thus power taken from the supply is that much
necessary for supplying the losses of both the
transformers and there is very small loss in the
control circuit.
 While conducting this test, the primaries of the two
identical transformers are connected in parallel across
the supply V1.
 While the secondaries are connected in series
opposition so that induced e.m.f.s in the two
secondaries oppose each other.
 The secondaries are supplied from another low
voltage supply are connected in each circuit to get the
readings.
 The connection diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.
 T1 and T2 are two identical transformers.
 The secondaries of T1 and T2 are connected in series
opposition. So EEF = EGH i.e. induced in two secondaries
are equal but the secondaries are connected such that E
is connected to G and F is connected to H.
 Due to such series opposition, two e.m.f.s act in opposite
direction to each other and cancel each other. So net
voltage ion the local circuit of secondaries is zero, when
primaries are excited by supply 1 of rated voltage and
frequency.
 So there is no current flowing in the loop formed by two
secondaries. The series opposition can be checked by
another voltmeter connected in the secondary circuit as
per polarity test. If it reads zero, the secondaries are in
series opposition and if it reads double the induced e.m.f.
in each secondary, it is necessary to reverse the
connections of one of the secondaries.
 As per superposition theorem, if V2 is assumed zero then due
to phase opposition to current flows through secondary and
both the transformers T1, T2 are as good as on no load. So
O.C. test gets simulated.

 The current drawn from source V1 in such case is 2 Io where

Io is no load current of each transformer.

 The input power as measured by wattmeter W1 thus reads the

iron losses of both the transformers.
Pi per transformer =W1 /2
as T1, T2 are identical
 Then a small voltage V2 is injected into the secondary with the
help of low voltage transformer, by closing the switch S.
 With regulation mechanism, the voltage V2 is adjusted so that
the rated secondary current I2 flows through the secondaries
as shown. I2 flows from E to F and then from H to G. The flow
of I1 is restricted to the loop B A I J C D L K B and it does not
pass through W1.
 Hence W1 continues to read core losses. Both primaries and
secondaries carry rated current so S.C. test condition gets
simulated.
 Thus the wattmeter W2 reads the total full load copper losses
of both the transformers.

... (Pcu) F.L.per transformer = W2 /2

Key Point
• Thus in the sumpner's test without supplying the
load, full iron loss occurs in the core while full
copper loss occurs in the windings simultaneously.
Hence heat run test can be conducted on the two
transformers. In O.C. and S.C. test, both the
losses do not occur simultaneously hence heat run
test can not be conducted. This is the advantage
of Sumpner's test.
• From the test results the full load efficiency of
each transformer can be calculated as,
where output = VA rating x cos Φ2
Tap Changing
Regulating the voltage of a transformer is a requirement that often arises in a power application or
power system. In an application it may be needed
1. To supply a desired voltage to the load.
2. To counter the voltage drops due to loads.
3. To counter the input supply voltage changes on load.
On a power system the transformers are additionally required to perform the task of regulation of
active and reactive power flows.
 Application and uses

• The transformer used in television and photocopy machines

• The transmission and distribution of alternating power is possible by transformer
• Simple camera flash uses fly back transformer
• Signal and audio transformer are used couple in amplifier

Todays transformer is become an essential part of

electrical engineering