Instructional Design

Theories,
History
& Models
C. Candace Chou
Learning Technology Certificate/MA Program
Department Curriculum and Instruction
University of St. Thomas
ccchou@stthomas.edu
 Benefits of
Instructional Design

Business:

tangible: e.g., increased output, ROI

intangible: e.g., worker loyalty

Education:

activity-oriented, project-based, student-

centered instruction

promote active learning

 What is a Teacher?
Advocate
Counselor
Evaluator
Coach
Learner
Motivator
Organizer
Judge
Collaborator
Referee
Model
Nurse
Artist
Confidant
Instructional
Listener
Designer
 Instructional System Design

Instruction is a systematic process that

involves teacher, learners, materials, and
learning environment in order to achieve
successful and identified learning goals.

The “system” refers to an orderly, logical

method of identifying, developing, and
evaluating a set of strategies aimed at
attaining a particular instructional goal
(Morrison, Ross, Kemp, 2004)
An instructional system is an arrangement of
resources and procedures to promote
learning.

Design implies a systematic or intensive

planning and ideation process prior to the
development of something or the execution of
some plan in order to solve a problem.

Instructional System Design is used

interchangeably with Instructional Design

ISD is a systems approach for the design,

development, implementation, and evaluation
of instruction.
Training refer to those instructional
experiences that are focused upon individuals
acquiring very specific skills that they will
normally apply almost immediately.

Teaching refer to those learning experiences

that are facilitated by a human being - not a
videotape, textbook, or computer program,
but a live teacher.
Education

Instruction

Training

Teaching

(Source: Smith & Ragan, 1999)

 ID Definition

Instructional design refers to the systematic

and reflective process of translating principles
of learning and instruction into plans for
instructional materials, activities, information
resources, and evaluation. (Smith and Ragan,
1999)
 Definition I
Instruction Design as a Process:

Instructional Design is the systematic

development of instructional specifications
using learning and instructional theory to
ensure the quality of instruction. It is the
entire process of analysis of learning
needs and goals and the development of a
delivery system to meet those needs. It
includes development of instructional
materials and activities; and tryout and
evaluation of all instruction and learner
activities.
 Definition II

Instructional Design as a Discipline:

Instructional Design is that branch of

knowledge concerned with research and
theory about instructional strategies and
the process for developing and
implementing those strategies.
 Definition III

Instructional Design as a Science

Instructional Design is the science of

creating detailed specifications for the
development, implementation, evaluation,
and maintenance of situations that
facilitate the learning of both large and
small units of subject matter at all levels of
complexity.
 Definitions IV

Instructional Design as Reality

Instructional Design can start at any point

in the design process. Often a glimmer of
an idea is developed to give the core of an
instruction situation. By the time the entire
process is done the designer looks back
and she or he checks to see that all parts
of the “science” have been taken into
account. Then the entire process is written
up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion.
Who’s Who in Instructional Design
Process

Project manager

Instructional Designer

Instructor/Trainer/Facilitator

Subject-matter Expert (SME)

Programmer/Developer

Graphic Artist/Designer

Evaluator
History of Instructional Design I

The origins: World War II

Psychologists and educators were called to

develop training materials for the military services.

Early Development: The Programmed Instruction

Movement, mid-1950s

Skinner (1958) introduced ideas on increasing

human learning and the characteristics of effective
instructional materials, called programmed
instructional materials

Present instruction in small steps, require active

responses to frequent questions, immediate
feedback
History of Instructional Design II

The Popularization of Behavioral Objectives

Rober Mager (1962) emphasized on objectives for

desired learner behaviors

Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy employed hierarchical

relationship among various types of outcomes

Robert Gagne (1962): Events of Instruction, Hierarchical

analysis, Domains of learning (psychomotor skills, verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and
attitudes)
History of Instructional Design II

1970s: Leslie Briggs demonstrated that an

instructionally designed course could produce up to
2:1 increase over conventionally designed class in
terms of achievement, reduction in variance, and
reduction of completion time, save $$$ in salary cost.

1980s: increased use of microcomputer has a major

effect on ID practices, computer-based instruction,
drill and practice

1990s, constructivism, problem-solving and

collaboration, social-cultural issues, and rapid
prototyping
 Learning Theories & the
Implications for ID

Behaviorism: Behavioral theory emphasized

the influence of the environment on learning.
According to behaviorism, learning has
occurred when learners evidence the
appropriate response to a particular stimulus,
e.g., Pavlov’s classical condition.

ID example: drill and practice. Memorization

for basic information
 Cognitive Learning Theories
Gagne: Principles of Instruction
Translate behaviorist and information -processing
theories into instructional strategies

Types of learning
• Intellectual skills (problem solving, higher-order
thinking, defined concepts, concrete concepts,
discriminations)
• Cognitive strategies
• Verbal information
• Motor skills
• Attitudes
Gagné: Events of Instruction

1. Gain attention
2. Informing the learner of the objectives
3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning
4. Presenting new materials
5. Providing learning guidance
6. Eliciting performance
7. Providing feedback about correctness
8. Assessing performance
9. Enhancing retention and recall
 Gagné (continued)

Learning hierarchies: Learning is a building process

that the lower-level skills provide the foundation for
higher-level skills.

Math example: to work with long division problems

requires the prerequisite math skills in number
recognition, number facts, simple addition and
subtraction, multiplication, and simple division.

ID examples: drills, tutorials, simulation

 Constructivism

Learning is always a unique product “constructed” as

each individual learner combines new information
with existing knowledge and experiences. Individuals
have learned when they have constructed new
interpretations of the social, cultural, physical, and
intellectual environments in which they live. (Dick &
Carey, 2001)

ID examples: problem-solving, project-based learning

Morrison, Ross, & Kemp Model
 ID Model: ADDIE

Analysis

Design

Development

Implementation

Evaluation
 The Analysis Phase

Who is the audience?

What do they need to learn?

What is the budget?

What are the delivery options?

What constraints exist?

When is the project due?

What will the students do to determine competency

(Powers, 1997)?
 The Design Phase

Select the most appropriate Web-based environment

by examining the kinds of cognitive skills required to
achieve your goal (Driscoll, 1998, p. 50)

Write the instructional objectives; select an overall

approach and the program’s look and feel; outline
units, lessons, and modules (Hall, 1997)

Design course content specifically for use with an

interactive, electronic medium (Porter, 1997)
 The Design Phase II
What are your objectives?

What skills, knowledge and attitudes are you trying to

develop?

What resources and strategies will you use in your

instruction?

How will you structure the content of your learning

materials?

How will you assess the learner’s understanding and

whether or not they have met the objectives of the
instruction?

(http://et.sdsu.edu/wschutt/addie/addieindex.htm )
 The Development Phase

Obtain and/or create the required media.

Use the Internet's strength to present information in

many different multimedia formats so that the
learners' preferences can be met (Porter, 1997, p.
196).

Determine the appropriate interactions. They should

be creative, innovative, and encourage learners to
explore further (Porter, 1997, p. 200).

Plan activities that allow for student group work to

help construct a supportive social environment
(Simonson et al, 2000, p. 115).
 The Implementation Phase

Duplicate and distribute materials.

Install and maintain the course.

Be prepared in the event that technical

problems occur and discuss alternative plans
with the students ahead of time (Simonson et
al, 2000, p. 115).
 The Evaluation Phase

Test for instructional standards.

Plan several points during the course when
students can provide anonymous feedback so
that the instructor is aware of student confusion
and misunderstanding (Schrum, 1998).
Conduct formative evaluations to improve the
course and summative evaluations to judge the
effect of the course (Bourne et al, 1997).
http://distance-
ed.fullerton.edu/pages/faculty_staff/online_guide/guide24.htm
 Needs Assessment

Define problems

Target population

Task Content

Job analysis

SME role (Subject Matter Expert)

 Tasks

A task is an action designed to contribute a specified

end result to the accomplishment of an objective. It
has an identifiable beginning and end that is
measurable component of the duties and
responsibilities of a specific job. A task statement has
an action and a result (product)

For example:

Adjust gears on a 10 speed bike

Print a Microsoft World document on Windows XP
 SME vs Trainers
SME are responsible on how tasks, to include the order of
performance steps, are to be performed, while trainers are
responsible on how that material will be presented
(demonstrate - practice - hands-on test).

SME are responsible on technical-jargon, while trainers

decide if that jargon needs to be explained (unless the jargon
is offensive).

SME are responsible what is acceptable performance, while

trainers decide how that performance will be evaluated
(written, hand-on, oral).

SME are responsible for providing the performance

objectives, while trainers are responsible for turning the
objectives into a viable learning or performance objectives
(task - observable action, conditions, standards - at least one
measurable criterion).
 Exercise 1

Discuss in small groups, in how many

different ways do people learn. Try to come
up as many verbs as possible, to end the
sentence:

People learn by...