What is biodiversity and how is it

measured?
• What is Biodiversity?
– The variation that exists in the natural
world at all levels of biological organization
– All organisms in a defined area, all of their
variations and all of their interactions with
each other and with the physical
environment
 Levels of Biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity: the gene pool within
a population
2. Species diversity: the number and
types of species in an area
3. Higher taxonomic diversity
4. Community Diversity
5. Ecosystem diversity (Habitat diversity)
 Species diversity
has two components:

1. Species richness: how many different

species are present in a habitat
2. Relative abundance: total number of
individuals of each species present
Species Richness and Abundance of a
Swamp Forest on Maryland’s Eastern
Shore
2003
1. Red Maple 33%
2. Black Gum 18%
3. Sweet Gum 17%
4. Oaks 14%
5. American Holly 8%
6. Loblolly Pine 6%
7. American Beech 4%
 Species diversity has
two components:
1. Species richness: how
many different species
are present in a habitat
2. Relative abundance:
total number of
individuals of each
species present
3. Which area is more
diverse?
 Defining Biodiversity:
• Old growth forest in the Shenandoah
Mountains of Virginia
– 50,000 trees represented by 10 species.
• Managed forest, recently clear cut
– 45,000 trees are maple and birch
– Only 1/10th of the forest is represented by
the remaining 8 species
 Importance of Taxonomy
Naming Species
1. Naming things upon which we depend for
food and medicine means survival.

2. Important to measuring biodiversity

3. Conservation
Basics About Taxonomy
Kingdom
Most
Phylum or Division inclusive
category
Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species Least
inclusive
category
 Linnea borealis
Twin Flower

Linnaeus (1707 -1778)

Taxonomy
 Binomial Nomenclature

Felis domesticus L.

Genus Species epithet Author

The house cat
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Felidae

Genus: Felis

Species: Felis
domesticus
Classification & Taxonomy
 “Wild”
Felis sp.

Felis
pardalis
Ocelot
 Bobcat
Lynx rufus Puma concolor

Panthera leo

Panthera tigris

Other Genera of the Cat Family

Family:
Felidae
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora Suborder: Aeluroidea

Family: Felidae

Genus: Felis

Species: Felis
domesticus
Classification & Taxonomy
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Arctoidea FYI
Pinnipedia
Otariidae -- sea lions, eared seals, fur seals
Odobenidae -- walrus
Phocidae -- true (earless) seals, elephant seals
Canidae -- dogs, wolves, foxes, coyotes, dingos
Ursidae -- bears, panda
Procyonidae -- raccoons, kinkajous, ringtails, coatis
Mustelidae -- weasels, ferrets, skunks, badgers, otters, sea otter

Suborder: Aeluroidea
Viverridae -- mongooses, meercats, civets, linsangs
Hyaenidae -- hyenas, aardwolf
Felidae -- cats, lions, tigers, leopards, cheetah
Aeluroidea
Kingdom Animalia Animalia

Phylum Arthropoda Chordata

(Vertebrates)
Class Malacostraca Mammals

Order Decapoda Primates

Family PORTUNIDAE Hominids

swimming crabs

Genus Callinectes Homo

Species Callinectes sapidus Homo sapiens

The Blue Crab
Domains:
Eubacteria Archaea Eukarya

Kingdoms: Animal

Fungi

Archaebacteria Plant

Protist

Eubacteria

Domains and
Kingdoms
Common
ancestor
 Kingdom Food Requirements

Eubacteria & chemosynthesis

Archaebacteria photosynthesis
Protista chemosynthesis
Algae photosynthesis
Slime molds Ingest food
Protozoa
Fungi Absorb food
True fungi in solution

Plants
Bryophytes photosynthesis
Vascular Plants
Animals
Multicellular Ingest food
animals
 What you need to know about
Classification
• The order of classification
• Binomial nomenclature (genus, species)
• The three Domains
• The five Kingdoms
• The ecological role of each kingdom
• The scientific name of the Blue Crab
 Rich in Species, Poor in
Knowledge
E.O. Wilson estimated 1.75 million
species are living on the planet.
Scientists generally disagree with the
exact number but, agree with Wilson
that 1.4 M represents probably a mere
1/10th of the total diversity.
Why do we know so little?
Other estimates:
4-112 million (7 million)
 Number of Other Animals 20%
Living
Species of All Insects Bacteria 4%
Kinds of 54% Fungi 5%
Organisms
Algae 2%
Currently
Known Plants 18%
Protozoa 2%
 What do we know?
• Estimates of the # of species
• More species are located in the tropical
regions of the world
– 2/3rd – 3/4th of all species live in tropical rain
forests which cover only 7% of the earth’s
surface
Diversity of North and Central
American birds
 Why do we know so little?
1. Not all species have been discovered
– #’s are biased toward animal species
– Know more about species in developed Nations
– Not all species are named as a result of unclear
species concepts in taxonomy

2. On-going extinction: species loss in tropical

forest is estimated at 6000/year,
• Tropical rain forests are more species rich than northern
regions of the world
• What are some factors that might account for this?
Some factors that affect the
biodiversity of an area
1. Historical Events
– Time
2. Habitat conditions
3. Habitat structure
4. Climate stability
5. Competition
– Predators
– Keystone species
6. Disturbance
1. Historical Events
• Each part of the world
has a unique history
• Effect of the recent
Ice Age in the
northern hemisphere
– Ireland has no snakes
• Time: Older Areas
have more species
than younger areas
Extent of Glaciation in the Pleistocene
 • Areas with extreme
2. Habitat climate or conditions
harbor fewer species
Conditions • Soldiers Delight Natural
Environment Area (NEA)
is comprised of 1,900
acres of serpentine
barren. The area has
over 39 rare, threatened,
or endangered plant
species as well as rare
insects, rocks and
minerals.
• Delaware River and
Pollution
 3. Habitat Structure
• Terrain that is simple, uniform, and
without much physical variation tends to
have fewer species than a complicated
terrain with wet and dry spots
• Ecologists call these microhabitats
• A piece of property with a patch of forest,
a small wetland, and a field with harbor a
greater diversity than the same sized
property that is covered with only forest.
 3. Habitat Structure:
The Forest Community
stratification

• The canopy
• The shrub layer
• The understory
• The herbaceous layer
– most conspicuous in the spring
• The forest floor
 4. Climate Stability
• How do the Tropics differ in climate
from Temperate regions?
 5. Competition Among Species
• Predators can enhance an area by
reducing the population size of prey
species
• Other species have a chance to get
established
• Keystone Species have a large effect on
the other species of a community
– Oysters of the Chesapeake Bay
– Vital as water filters, provide habitat, income
for watermen
 6. The Nature of Disturbance
1. Damage communities
2. Remove organisms Ice Storms
3. Alter resource availability

Flooding
Fire
Storms and Hurricanes
Tornados
 6. Disturbance
1. Create opportunities for the
colonization of new species
2. Disturbance is a natural part of the life
of a community: most communities are
always in recovery from disturbance
3. Humans as agents of disturbance
Hurricane Katrina
• Cypress trees play a crucial
role in the swamp forests
that cover hundreds of
thousands of acres of
coastal Louisiana. These
swamps prevent floods by
collecting storm waters and
clean water by filtering out
pollution. They also provide
habitat for a wide variety of
animals, such as migratory
songbirds (the ivory-billed
woodpecker, until recently
believed extinct, once thrived
in the swamps).
FIRE
Yellowstone fires of
1988

Fire has been used to

manage marshes and
forests
 Optional Activity
Unit 3: Activity 31
Track Your Understanding
Answer Question #2 on pages 464-465
worth 5 points
 Species Extinction:
Past and Present
• Extinction is a biological reality
• Extinction and evolution are intricately related
• Five mass extinctions in the earth’s history
– 99% of species that have ever existed are now
extinct
• Each mass extinction is followed by a rise in
biodiversity of a new set of species
 Humans Agents of Extinction

• Humans have played a role in the extinction of

species for thousands of years
• Some say we are facilitating the 6th mass
extinction in the earth’s history
• Can scientists accurately measure extinction
rates?
Estimates of Extinction Rates
“the logic of loss”
• Estimating rates is difficult at best
• Most accurate estimates are for birds
and mammals
• Species-area relationships from Island
Biogeography
– # species is related to size of habitat
– Estimate habitat loss
– 90% habitat loss: 50% species loss
 Island Biogeography:
Species richness and island size
 Conserving the
Biodiversity of the Commons

• Conserving the world’s biodiversity is

based on principles of biology
– Population biology
– Conservation biology
 Principles of Population Biology
1. Small populations are more likely to
become extinct than large populations
2. To understand a population it is
important to consider factors such as
its age structure and sex ratio
3. Populations must be monitored to
determine the effects of a
conservation plan
 Principles of Conservation Biology
1. A species that is
broadly distributed
across its range is
less likely to
become extinct
than a species
that is restricted to
a small part of its
range

The range of the Eastern Fox Squirrel

• The Delmarva Fox
Squirrel
• Original range
included the entire
Delmarva peninsula
into southeastern PA.
• Remnant populations
exist at Blackwater,
Eastern Neck NWR
(Kent Co.), and
Assateague Island
Principles of Conservation Biology

2. Characteristics of habitats that favor

species preservation:
a. Large rather than small; Bigger is better
b. Close together rather than far apart
c. Whole rather than internally fragmented
d. Linked by corridors rather than isolated
e. Inaccessible rather than easily accessible
to people
• Island
Biogeography
(studying
populations on
islands) teaches us
about conservation
on main lands
• Why?
• Habitat
fragmentation
• Example
fragmenting a forest
• The main land of
South America is to
the Galapagos
Islands as
• An intact forest is to
the fragmented
parcels
 When habitats become islands
Dooms species by confining them to
small, island-like parcels of habitat
surrounded by an ocean of human
impact. This often leads to:
– Inbreeding within small populations
– Roads, fences, houses, clear-cuts create
barriers to dispersal and reproduction
– More susceptible to environmental
fluctuations and catastrophes
Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
for Real
 Corridors are Important for
Connecting “Islands”

• Corridors function as pipelines that permit wildlife to

move between habitats
• Promote biodiversity
• But can also transmit disease, fire, predators, and
pests
• The effectiveness of habitat corridors depends on the
situation
Agriculture with Forested Corridors
 Algonquin to Adirondack
Wildlife Preservation Project
Fragmentation of Habitat in Maryland

• Early tobacco farming

in the Mid-Atlantic
resulted in
fragmentation of the
land into a fine mosaic
of forest patches
interspersed with young
trees, herbs and
shrubs.
• Large scale agriculture
stripped extensive
areas of the landscape
leaving only small
patches of forest
• The most extensive
land clearance in the
region occurred in the
late 1800’s – early
1900’s
• 80% of the land around
the Chesapeake was
cleared of its forests.
• Wetlands were drained
for farm land.
• The pattern of
farm fields,
forests, and
marshes
surrounding
Blackwater
Wildlife Refuge
• Dorchester Co.
Eastern Shore
• Blackwater
Wildlife Refuge’s
Wildlife Drive is
circled