Routing Concept

Sirak Kaewjamnong
Computer Network Tech and Security
Agenda

• Basic concepts

• Routing components

• Classes of routing protocol

• Internet routing protocol

2
What’s Routing
Routing - path finding from one end to the
other
• Routing occurs at layer 3
• Bridging occurs at layer 2
Application layer Application layer
Presentation layer Presentation layer
Session layer Session layer
Transport layer Transport layer
Network layer Network layer Network layer
Data link layer Data link layer Data link layer
Physical link Physical link Physical link

Network A Network B

3
IP Routing
• IP performs:
• search for a matching host address
• search for a matching network address
• search for a default entry
• Routing done by IP router, when it searches the
routing table and decide which interface to end a
packet out.
incoming

which interface ?

4
Routing Tables
• Routing is carried out in a router by consulting
routing table.
• No unique format for routing tables, typically
table contains:
– address of a destination
– IP address of next hop router
– network interface to be used
– subnet mask for the this interface
– distance to the destination

5
Routing Component
• Three important routing elements :
– algorithm
– database
– protocol
• Algorithm : can be differentiate based on several
key characteristics
• Database : table in routers or routing table
• Protocol: the way information for routing to be
gathered and distributed

6
Routing Algorithm
Design goals
• Optimality - compute the best route
• Simplicity/low overhead - efficient with a
minimum software and utilization overhead
• Robustness/stability- perform correctly in the face
of unusual circumstances
• Rapid convergence- responds quickly when the
network changes
• Flexibility- accurate adapt to a variety of network

7
Routing Protocols

• Routing protocol : protocol to exchange of

information between routers about the current
state of the network
• Routing protocol jobs
– create routing table entries
– keep routing table up-to-date
– compute the best choice for the next hop router

8
Routing Metrics

• How do we decide that one route is better than

another?
• Solution : using a metric as a measurement to
compare routes
• Metrics may be distance, throughput, delay, error
rate, and cost.
• Today, IP supports Delay, Throughput, Reliability
and Cost (DTRC)

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Hop Count
• A hop is defined as a passage through one router

2 hops

1 hop 1 hop
R1 R2

1 hop 1 hop

R3

10
Routing Algorithm Types

• Static V.S. Dynamic

• Source routing V.S. Hop-by-hop
• Centralize V.S. Distributed
• Distance vector V.S. Link state

11
Routing Algorithm: Static Route
• Manually configuration routing table
• Can’t react dynamically to network change such as
router’s crash
• Work well with small network or simple topology
• Unix hosts use command route to add an entry
point to point
connection

route to this
way only, no need
for update

12
Routing Algorithm: Static Technique
Flooding
• Every incoming packet is sent out every outgoing
• Retransmit on all outgoing at each node
• Simple technique, require no network information
• Generate vast numbers of duplicate packet

flooding
incoming

13
Routing Algorithm: Dynamic Route
Dynamic route
• Network protocol adjusts automatically for
topology or traffic changes
• Unix hosts run routing daemon routed or gated

14
Routing Algorithm: Dynamic Route operation

• Routing protocol maintains and distributes

routing information

Routing Routing Routing Routing

Protocol Table Table Protocol

Update Routing Information

15
Routing Algorithm: Source Routing
• Source routing
– Source will determine the entire route
– Routers only act as store-forward devices
• Hop-by-hop
– Routers determine the path based on theirs own
calculation

16
Routing Algorithm: Distance Vector
• Distance means routing metric
• Vector means destination
• Flood routing table only to its neighbors
• RIP is an example
• Also known as Bellmann-Ford algorithm or Ford-
Fulkerson algorithm

17
Distance Vector Algorithm
• Using hop count as a metric
• Each router periodically sends a copy of its
routing table to neighbors
• send <network X, hopcount Y>

R1 R2 R3
W X Y Z

routing table routing table routing table

W 0 W 1 W 2
X 0 X 0 X 1
Y 1 Y 0 Y 0
Z 2 Z 1 Z 0

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Distance Vector Routing Update
• Step by step from router to router
• Slow convergence

• •
recompute R1’s recompute R2’s recompute R3’s
routing table routing table routing table

Œ
topology
R1 R2 R3 change

R2 sends out R3 sends out

the updated table the updated table
• Ž

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Distance Vector: Broadcast (I)
• The first round I, 1 hop
R1 J, 1 hop

J, 1 hop
K, 1 hop
J M, 1 hop
I
N, 1 hop
R3
K
R2 N, 1 hop
O, 1 hop
I, 1 hop
L N
K, 1 hop R5
M
L, 1 hop
O

R4
L, 1 hop
M, 1 hop
O 1 hop

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Distance Vector: Broadcast (II)
• The second round I, 1 hop
J, 1 hop
K, 2 hops J, 1 hop
R1 L, 2 hops K, 1 hop
M, 2 hops M, 1 hop
N, 2 hops N, 1 hop
I, 2 hops N, 1 hop
J L, 2 hops O, 1 hop
I O, 2 hops J, 2 hops
R3 K, 2 hops
K M, 1 hop
R2 L, 2 hops

I, 1 hop L N
R5
K, 1 hop M
L, 1 hop
J, 2 hops O
M, 2 hops
N, 2 hops R4
O, 2 hops L, 1 hop
M, 1 hop
O, 1 hop
I, 2 hops
K, 2 hops
J, 2 hops
N, 2 hops
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Distance Vector: Broadcast (III)
• The third round I, 1 hop
J, 1 hop
K, 2 hops
L, 2 hops J, 1 hop
R1 K, 1 hop
M, 2 hops
N, 2 hops M, 1 hop
O, 3 hops N, 1 hop N, 1 hop
I, 2 hops O, 1 hop
J L, 2 hops
I J, 2 hops
O, 2 hops K, 2 hops
R3
K M, 1 hop
R2 L, 2 hops
I, 3 hops
I, 1 hop
L N
K, 1 hop R5
M
L, 1 hop
J, 2 hops O
M, 2 hops
N, 2 hops
O, 2 hops R4
L, 1 hop
M, 1 hop
O, 1 hop
I, 2 hops
K, 2 hops
J, 2 hops
N, 2 hops
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Distance Vector: Crashed Recovery
• R3 crashed R1

• New complete route of R1 J

I
R2 R3
K
R1 routing table
net hop via L N R5
M
I 1 N/A
J 1 N/A O
2 R2 net hop via
K
2 R2 I 1 N/A R4
L
2 R3 J 1 N/A
M
2 R3 K 2 R2
N
3 R5 L 2 R2
O
M 3 R2
N 4 R2
O 3 R2

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Count to Infinity
• R2 does not hear any thing from R3
• R1 says : don’t worry, I can reach R3 in 2 hops,
R2 update hop count to 3
• R1 sees R2’s update, then update itself to 4 and so
on……
R3 crashed
R1 R2 R3
I J

2 1 initial
2 3 1st round
4 3 2nd round hop count to R3
4 5 3rd round

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Split Horizon
• Solve by set distance “16” as infinity
• No destination can be more than 15 hops away
from any other
• Distance to X is not reported on the line that
packet for X are sent
• Actually, it reports with infinity
R1 R2 R3
I J R3 crashed

to R3 to R3

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Dijkstra’s Shortest Path First Algorithm

• Routers send out update messages whenever the

state of a link changes. Hence the name: “Link
State” algorithm.
• Each router calculates lowest cost path to all
others, starting from itself.
• At each step of the algorithm, router adds the next
shortest (i.e. lowest-cost) path to the tree.
• Finds spanning tree routed on source router.

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 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

• RIP limited in large internets

• OSPF preferred interior routing protocol for
TCP/IP based internets
• Link state routing used

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Routing Algorithm: Link State
• Flood routing information to all nodes
• Each router finds who is up and flood this
information to the entire routers
• Use the link state to build a shortest path map to
everybody
• OSPF is an example
• Also known as Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm

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Flooding
• Packet sent by source router to every neighbor
• Incoming packet resent to all outgoing links
except source link
• Duplicate packets already transmitted are
discarded
– Prevent incessant retransmission
• All possible routes tried so packet will get through
if route exists
– Highly robust
• At least one packet follows minimum delay route
– Reach all routers quickly
• All nodes connected to source are visited
– All routers get information to build routing table
• High traffic load 29
Link State Overview
• Using cost as a metric
• Exchange its connection and cost to its neighbors
• Each router compute the set of optimum path to all
destination (Shortest Path First)

W X Y Z

link state link state link state

W 0 X 0 Y 0
X 0 Y 0 Z 0

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Link State Concept
• Each router initially begins with directly
connected network
• Determine full knowledge of distant routers and
theirs connection R1
Πexchange link
R2 state packets

• R4
build topological
database
R3
Routing
Table
Ž
compute SPF update routing
• table
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Link State Routing Update

• Send information to other routers

• Fast convergence

R1

R4
R2 topology
change

R3

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OSPF Overview
• Router maintains descriptions of state of
local links
• Transmits updated state information to all
routers it knows about
• Router receiving update must acknowledge
– Lots of traffic generated
• Each router maintains database
– Directed graph

33
Link Costs
• Cost of each hop in each direction is called
routing metric
• OSPF provides flexible metric scheme
based on type of service (TOS)
– Normal (TOS) 0
– Minimize monetary cost (TOS 2)
– Maximize reliability (TOS 4)
– Maximize throughput (TOS 8)
– Minimize delay (TOS 16)

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Areas
• Make large internets more manageable
• Configure as backbone and multiple areas
• Area – Collection of contiguous networks
and hosts plus routers connected to any
included network
• Backbone – contiguous collection of
networks not contained in any area, their
attached routers and routers belonging to
multiple areas

35
Operation of Areas
• Each are runs a separate copy of the link
state algorithm
– Topological database and graph of just that area
– Link state information broadcast to other
routers in area
– Reduces traffic
– Intra-area routing relies solely on local link
state information

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Comparison

Distance Vector Link State

pass a copy of pass links state update

whole routing table

add metric from calculate the shortest path

router to router to other routers

frequent periodic update: event updated: fast

slow convergence convergence

37
Internet Routing Architecture
Autonomous
System
EGP/BGP
IGP EGP/BGP
IGP
IGP

Autonomous BGP4 BGP4

Autonomous
System
System
BGP4
IGP IGP

EGP/BGP EGP/BGP EGP/BGP EGP/BGP Autonomous

System
IGP IGP IGP
IGP
Autonomous
System

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Routing in the Internet
The Internet uses hierarchical routing
• The Internet is split into Autonomous Systems (AS’s)
• Within an AS, the administrator chooses an Interior
Gateway Protocol (IGP)
• Examples of IGPs: RIP (rfc 1058), OSPF (rfc 1247).
• Between AS’s, the Internet uses an Exterior Gateway
Protocol
• AS’s today use the Border Gateway Protocol, BGP-4 (rfc
1771)

39
Autonomous System
• AS is a collectionof LANs and WANs and the
interconnectting routers which under the control of
one management authority
• The same AS runs the same Interior Gateway
Protocol
• Why setting up AS? - establish a direct link to
each other rather than route through the core
Internet
• How to select AS? - register and get the AS
number from IAB

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Gateway Protocol
• Interior gateway protocol
– exchange routing information between routers
within a single AS
– RIP, RIP II, OSPF

• Exterior gateway protocol

– collect network-reachablity information for the
AS
– EGP, BGP

41
Interior Routing Protocols
• RIP
• Uses distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm.
• Updates sent every 30 seconds.
• No authentication.
• Originally in BSD UNIX.

• OSPF
• Link-state updates sent (using flooding) as and when
required.
• Every router runs Dijkstra’s algorithm.
• Authenticated updates.
• Autonomous system may be partitioned into “areas”.
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Exterior Routing Protocols
Problems:
• Topology: The Internet is a complex mesh of different
AS’s with very little structure.
• Autonomy of AS’s: Each AS defines link costs in
different ways, so not possible to find lowest cost paths.
• Trust: Some AS’s can’t trust others to advertise good
routes (e.g. two competing backbone providers), or to
protect the privacy of their traffic (e.g. two warring
nations).
• Policies: Different AS’s have different objectives (e.g.
route over fewest hops; use one provider rather than
another).

43
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP-4)
• BGP is not a link-state or distance-vector routing
protocol.
• BGP advertises complete paths (a list of AS’s).
• Example of path advertisement:
• “The network 171.64/16 can be reached via the path
{AS1, AS5, AS13}”.
• Paths with loops are detected locally and ignored.
• Local policies pick the preferred path among
options.
• When a link/router fails, the path is “withdrawn”.

44
References
• http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/hw/routers/ps
274/index.html
• http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/hw/routers/ps
274/products_data_sheet09186a008010fba1.html
• Computer Networks with Internet Technology
By William Stallings Chapter 11 Interior Routing Protocols

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