BLOCK DIAGRAM OF GENERALIZED

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 Components of Generalized Measurement
System
• Primary Sensing Element
• Variable Conversion Element
• Variable Manipulation Element
• Data Processing Element
• Data Transmission System
• Data Presentation Element
 Primary Sensing Element

• The primary sensing element receives signal of the

physical quantity to be measured as input. It
converts the signal to a suitable form (electrical,
mechanical or other form), so that it becomes easier
for other elements of the measurement system, to
either convert or manipulate it.
 Variable Conversion Element

• Variable conversion element converts the

output of the primary sensing element to a
more suitable form. It is used only if
necessary.
 Variable Manipulation Element
• Variable manipulation element manipulates
and amplifies the output of the variable
conversion element. It also removes noise (if
present) in the signal.
 Data Processing Element
• Data processing element is an important element
used in many measurement systems. It processes
the data signal received from the variable
manipulation element and produces suitable
output.
• Data processing element may also be used to
compare the measured value with a standard
value to produce required output.
 Data Transmission System
• Data Transmission System is simply used for
transmitting data from one element to
another. It acts as a communication link
between different elements of the
measurement system. Some of the data
transmission elements used are cables,
wireless antennae, transducers, telemetry
systems etc
 Data Presentation Element
• It is used to present the measured physical
quantity in a human readable form to the
observer. It receives processed signal from
data processing element and presents the
data in a human readable form. LED displays
are most commonly used as data presentation
elements in many measurement systems
 The International System of Units(SI)
• There are seven SI base SI Base Units
units. Quantity SI base Symbol
unit
• From these base units, all Length meter m
other SI units of Mass kilogram kg
measurement can be
Temperature kelvin K
derived.
Time second s
Amount of
– Derived units are used mole mol
substance
for measurements such
Luminous
as volume, density, and intensity
candela cd
pressure.
Electric current ampere A
 Units of Length
The table below lists the prefixes in common use.

Commonly Used Metric Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Factor
mega M 106
kilo k 103
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro μ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates.

All Rights Reserved.
Units of Volume
The relationships among common metric units of volume are
shown in the table below.

Metric Units of Volume

Unit Symbol Relationship Example
Liter L base unit quart of milk ≈ 1 L
Milliliter mL 103 mL = 1 L 20 drops of water ≈ 1 mL
Cubic centimeter cm3 1 cm3 = 1 mL cube of sugar ≈ 1 cm3
Microliter μL 103 μL = 1 L crystal of table salt ≈ 1 μL
 Performance Characteristics
1. Static Characteristics 2. Dynamic Characteristics
1. Static Characteristics
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Sensitivity
• Linearity
• Reproducibility
• Repeatibility
• Hysteresis
• Resolution
• Dead Time
• Dead Zone
• Drift
• Scale Range or Span
• Threshold
• Stability
• Tolerance
• Error
 Accuracy
• This is the closeness with which the measuring instrument can measure
the ‘true value’ of the measured under stated conditions of use, i.e. its
ability to ‘tell the truth’.

• The accuracy of an instrument is quantified by the difference of its

readings and the one given by the ultimate or primary standard.

• Accuracy depends on inherent limitations of instrument and shortcomings

in measurement process

• Accuracy as percentage of scale span : When an instrument has uniform

scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.

• Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea
of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being
measured.

• Percentage of true value (% of T.V.) = (Measured value – True value) *100

/True value
 Precision
• Precision is defined as the ability of instrument to reproduce a
certain set of readings within given accuracy.
• Precision describes an instrument’s degree of random
variations in its output when measuring a constant quantity.
• Precision depends upon repeatability.
• The precision is composed of two characteristics:

a) Conformity: Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 ,

which is being measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can
read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the non-availability of
proper scale. The error created due to the limitation of the scale
reading is a precision error.
b) Number of significant figures:
• The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of
significant figures, in which the reading is expressed.
• The significant figures convey the actual information about the
magnitude & the measurement precision of the quantity. The
precision can be mathematically expressed as:

Where, P = precision
Xn = Value of nth measurement
Xn = Average value the set of measurement
 Sensitivity:
• The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured
variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the
ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a
change in the value of the quantity to be measured.
Mathematically it is expressed as,
 Repeatability
• Repeatability is defined as ability of
instrument to reproduce a group of
measurements of same measured quantity,
made by same observer, using same
instrument, under same conditions.
 Resolution
• It is the minimum change or smallest
increment in the measured value that can be
detected with certainty by the instrument.
• It can be least count of instrument.
 Reproducibility:
• It is the degree of closeness with which a
given value may be repeatedly measured.
• It is specified in terms of scale readings over a
given period of time.
 Drift
• Its Gradual shift in indication over a period of
time where input variable does not change.
• Cause by environmental factor like changes in
temperature, mechanical vibration.
• Classified as
1. Zero Drift: deviation of output from its zero
value when variable to measured is constant.
2. Span Drift/Sensitivity Drift: change in indication
along the upward scale
3. Zonal Drift: drift that occurs over a portion of
span of an instrument
• Threshold: If the instrument input is increased
very gradually from zero there will be some
minimum value below which no output
change can be detected. This minimum value
defines the threshold of the instrument.

• Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to

retain its performance throughout is specified
operating life.

• Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in

the measurement is specified in terms of
some value which is called tolerance
• Range or span: The minimum & maximum
values of a quantity for which an instrument is
designed to measure is called its range or
span.

• Dead Time: it’s a time required for the

instrument to respond to the change in
output. for a certain range of inputs, the
output values does not change .

• Dead Zone: its Largest change of input

quantity for which there is no output.
 HYSTERESIS
• Figure shows illustrates the output
characteristic of an instrument that
exhibits hysteresis. If the input measured
quantity to the instrument is steadily
increased from a negative value, the
output reading varies in the manner shown
in curve (A)

• If the input variable is then steadily

decreased, the output varies in the manner
shown in curve (B). The non coincidence
between these loading and unloading
curves is known as hysteresis

• Hysteresis is most commonly found in

instruments that contain springs, such as
the passive pressure gauge
 Error
• It’s a deviation from the true value of the
measured variable
• Involves the comparison of an unknown quantity
with an acceptable standard.
• Error may be either absolute error or parentage
error
• Absolute error: is a result of comparison between
the expected value of the variable and observed
value of variable.
• i.e. e = 𝐴𝑒 - 𝐴𝑚
 Dynamic characteristics:
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which
are changes rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic
characteristics
• When an input is applied to an instrument or a
measurement system, the instrument or the system
cannot take up immediately its final steady state
position. It goes through a transient state before it
finally settles to its final steady state position.
• The various static characteristics are:
i) Speed of response
ii) Measuring lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
• Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity
with which a measurement system responds
to changes in the measured quantity
• Dynamic error: It is the difference between
the true value of the quantity changing with
time & the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is
assumed. It is also called measurement error.
• Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a
measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without dynamic error.
 Measuring lag:
• It is the retardation or delay in the response of
a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity. The measuring lags are of
two types:
• a) Retardation type: In this case the response
of the measurement system begins
immediately after the change in measured
quantity has occurred.
• b) Time delay lag: In this case the response of
the measurement system begins after a dead
time after the application of the input