Introduction to Algorithms

6.046J

Lecture 1
Prof. Shafi Goldwasser
Prof. Erik Demaine
Welcome to Introduction to
Algorithms, Spring 2004

L1.2
 What is course about?
The theoretical study of design and
analysis of computer algorithms
Basic goals for an algorithm:
• always correct
• always terminates
• This class: performance
 Performance often draws the line between
what is possible and what is impossible.

L1.3
Design and Analysis of Algorithms

• Analysis: predict the cost of an algorithm in

terms of resources and performance

• Design: design algorithms which minimize the

cost

L1.4
 The problem of sorting

Input: sequence a1, a2, …, an of numbers.

Output: permutation a'1, a'2, …, a'n such

that a'1  a'2 …  a'n .

Example:
Input: 8 2 4 9 3 6
Output: 2 3 4 6 8 9
L1.6
 Insertion sort
INSERTION-SORT (A, n) ⊳ A[1 . . n]
for j ← 2 to n
do key ← A[ j]
i←j–1
“pseudocode” while i > 0 and A[i] > key
do A[i+1] ← A[i]
i←i–1
A[i+1] = key
1 i j n
A:
key
sorted
L1.7
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6

L1.8
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6

L1.9
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6

L1.10
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6

L1.11
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6

L1.12
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6

L1.13
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6

L1.14
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6

L1.15
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6

L1.16
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6

L1.17
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6
2 3 4 6 8 9 done

L1.18
 Running time

• The running time depends on the input: an

already sorted sequence is easier to sort.
• Major Simplifying Convention:
Parameterize the running time by the size of
the input, since short sequences are easier to
sort than long ones.
TA(n) = time of A on length n inputs
• Generally, we seek upper bounds on the
running time, to have a guarantee of
performance.
L1.19
 Kinds of analyses
Worst-case: (usually)
• T(n) = maximum time of algorithm
on any input of size n.
Average-case: (sometimes)
• T(n) = expected time of algorithm
over all inputs of size n.
• Need assumption of statistical
distribution of inputs.
Best-case: (NEVER)
• Cheat with a slow algorithm that
works fast on some input.
L1.20
 Machine-independent time
What is insertion sort’s worst-case time?

BIG IDEAS:
• Ignore machine dependent constants,
otherwise impossible to verify and to compare algorithms

• Look at growth of T(n) as n → ∞ .

“Asymptotic Analysis”
L1.21
 Q-notation

DEF:
Q(g(n)) = { f (n) : there exist positive constants c1, c2, and
n0 such that 0  c1 g(n)  f (n)  c2 g(n)
for all n  n0 }
Basic manipulations:
• Drop low-order terms; ignore leading constants.
• Example: 3n3 + 90n2 – 5n + 6046 = Q(n3)

L1.22
 Asymptotic performance
When n gets large enough, a Q(n2) algorithm
always beats a Q(n3) algorithm.
.
• Asymptotic analysis is a
useful tool to help to
structure our thinking
toward better algorithm
• We shouldn’t ignore
T(n) asymptotically slower
algorithms, however.
• Real-world design
n0 situations often call for a
n
careful balancing L1.23
 Insertion sort analysis
Worst case: Input reverse sorted.
n
T ( n)   Q ( j )  Q n 2 [arithmetic series]
j 2
Average case: All permutations equally likely.
n
T ( n)   Q( j / 2)  Qn 2 
j 2
Is insertion sort a fast sorting algorithm?
• Moderately so, for small n.
• Not at all, for large n.
L1.24
 Example 2: Integer
Multiplication

• Let X = A B and Y = C D where A,B,C

and D are n/2 bit integers
• Simple Method: XY = (2n/2A+B)(2n/2C+D)
• Running Time Recurrence
T(n) < 4T(n/2) + 100n

• Solution T(n) = q(n2)

L1.25
 Better Integer Multiplication

• Let X = A B and Y = C D where A,B,C and D

are n/2 bit integers
• Karatsuba:
XY = (2n/2+2n)AC+2n/2(A-B)(C-D) + (2n/2+1) BD
• Running Time Recurrence
T(n) < 3T(n/2) + 100n

• Solution: q(n) = O(n log 3)

L1.26
Example 3:Merge sort

MERGE-SORT A[1 . . n]
1. If n = 1, done.
2. Recursively sort A[ 1 . . n/2 ]
and A[ n/2+1 . . n ] .
3. “Merge” the 2 sorted lists.

Key subroutine: MERGE

L1.27
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12
13 11
7 9
2 1

L1.28
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12
13 11
7 9
2 1

L1.29
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9
2 1 2

L1.30
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9
2 1 2

1 2

L1.31
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9
2 1 2

1 2

L1.32
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9
2 1 2

1 2 7

L1.33
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7

L1.34
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9

L1.35
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9

L1.36
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9 11

L1.37
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9 11

L1.38
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9 11 12

L1.39
 Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2

1 2 7 9 11 12

Time = Q(n) to merge a total

of n elements (linear time).
L1.40
 Analyzing merge sort

T(n) MERGE-SORT A[1 . . n]

Q(1) 1. If n = 1, done.
2T(n/2) 2. Recursively sort A[ 1 . . n/2 ]
and A[ n/2+1 . . n ] .
Q(n) 3. “Merge” the 2 sorted lists
Sloppiness: Should be T( n/2 ) + T( n/2 ) ,
but it turns out not to matter asymptotically.

L1.41
 Recurrence for merge sort
Q(1) if n = 1;
T(n) =
2T(n/2) + Q(n) if n > 1.
• We shall usually omit stating the base
case when T(n) = Q(1) for sufficiently
small n, but only when it has no effect on
the asymptotic solution to the recurrence.
• Lecture 2 provides several ways to find a
good upper bound on T(n).

L1.42
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.

L1.43
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
T(n)

L1.44
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
T(n/2) T(n/2)

L1.45
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2

T(n/4) T(n/4) T(n/4) T(n/4)

L1.46
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2

cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4

Q(1)

L1.47
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4

Q(1)

L1.48
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4

Q(1)

L1.49
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4

Q(1)

L1.50
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn

…
Q(1)

L1.51
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn

…
Q(1) #leaves = n Q(n)

L1.52
 Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn

…
Q(1) #leaves = n Q(n)
Total Q(n lg n)
L1.53
 Conclusions

• Q(n lg n) grows more slowly than Q(n2).

• Therefore, merge sort asymptotically
beats insertion sort in the worst case.
• In practice, merge sort beats insertion
sort for n > 30 or so.

L1.54