COURSE NO. 2.

3
1. Identify/Specify and describe operation of
Process & Control Instruments
2. Interpret the specification of the
instruments and appreciate the installation
requirements
3. Describe testing and calibration methods
of control and process instruments
4. Interpret EDs, IS, Wiring diagrams and
explain the logics and operation of basic
control loops.

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1. General
2. Pressure Measurement
3. Level Measurement
4. Flow Measurement
5. Temperature Measurement
6. Turbo-visory Equipment
7. Final controls elements
8. Principles of automatic control and
controllers
9. Logic circuits and hardware
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 General
(instrumentation)
Objective is to train trainee about the
following :

To know definition of instrumentation and

types of instrumentation

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Definition of Instrumentation
Instrumentation is the branch of
engineering which deal with the
measurement, recording and controlling of
various physical and chemical parameters.

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Types of Nuclear Power Plant
instrumentation are

• Information system

• Control system

• Protection system

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Basic Terminology’s used in instrumentation are
Measurement
Measurement is the comparison of unknown value to the known
value.
Calibration
Calibration is the comparison of input and out put signal with a
standard instrument and the adjustment of the instrument if
Deviation Exists
Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree of correctness of the measured value.

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 Precision
Precision is the degree of reproducibility.
Error
Error is the difference between measured variable and
set point.
Range
The limit with in which the quantity is measured and
express by the upper and lower limit.

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Span
The algebraic difference between the maximum and
minimum value of the measured variable.

Input signal
It is the signal applied to a device or an instrument, in
which response it produce the out put.
Out put signal
It is the signal delivered by a device or an instrument in
response of input signal.

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Measured variable
The physical or chemical variable which is to be
measured.
Resolution
It is the smallest measurable change in the input.
Zero adjustment
Adjustment of initial or starting point of measurement at
which instrument will start to respond.

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 Objective
 Definition
 Basic pressure mechanisms (Bourdon -
Spiral-Diaphragm-Bellows)
 Pressure Recorders
 Pressure Gauge Accessories
 Pressure Switch & setting

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 Pressure
Pressure is the force acting on unit area is
called pressure.
P = F/A
where
P is the pressure, F is the force, A is the
area

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Units of Pressure Measurement:-
• PSI - Pounds per Sq inch
• Kg/Cm2 - Kilogram per Cm2
• Inches / Centimeter of water column
• Barr = 1 mm of Hg (vacuums)
• Inches / Centimeter of mercury.
• Pascal = Newton per m2 or N/M2

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Units:-
 1 Kg/cm2 = 14.22 psi
 1 Pascal = 0.01 m bar
 1 K Pascal = 0.145 psi
 1 Psi = 2.036 inches of Hg.
 1Atm = 1.0333 Kg/cm2

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Pressure measurement

 Reference of Pressure Measurements

 Vacuum
 Absolute pressure
 Gauge pressure

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Pressure measurement (cont.)

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 Basic pressure sensing
mechanism
Principle of mechanical pressure sensing
elements HOOKS LAW which states that Stress is
proportional to strain under elastic characteristic
of material.

STRESS α STRAIN

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Types of sensing elements

Bourdon
Diaphragm
Spiral
Bellow

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Principle used in Bourdon gauge is

Bourdon tube is circular tube with oval cross

section of elastic alloy material and when
force is exerted on one side of the face of the
tube it gets flattened and tube tends to
change to a more circular cross-section, when
pressurized.

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Displacement of bourdon tube depends on-

 Length of tube.
 Radius of tube.
 Thickness of tube.
 Cross-sectional dimension of tube.
 Young's modulus of elasticity.
 Applied pressure.

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 Types of bourdon tubes

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Diaphragm

Diaphragm is thin circular or rectangle

type metallic or non metallic disc Aneroid
gauge uses the deflection of a
flexible membrane that separates regions of
different pressure.

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Displacement of diaphragm is depends on

• Diameter of diaphragm.
• Thickness of diaphragm.
• Material of diaphragm.
• Applied pressure.

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Name of instrument :Diaphragm.
Input :Pressure.
Output :Displacement.
Supply :Not required
Mounting :Field / slop.
Range :Low pressure
Working principle :Hook’s law.
Application :Pressure measurement.

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Capsule
Capsule is the combination of two
diaphragms, which is fixed at outer ends
and pressure is applied on the centre of
both diaphragm.
Full displacement is taken by the canter of
a diaphragm and by this arrangement we
increase the sensitivity, so that it is suitable
for low pressure measurement.

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 Displacement of Capsule is depends on:-
• Diameter of Capsule.

• Thickness of Capsule.

• Material of Capsule.

• No of diaphragm.

• Applied pressure.

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Bellow

Bellow elements are a thin walled metal

tube with deeply convoluted side wall,
which permits axial expansion and
compression when pressure is changing

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Typical Diagram for a bellow

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 Pressure Recorder
 Paper Recorder
 Chartless recorder

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Picture of
Pressure

Recorder

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 In conventional paper recorders following problems
were faced :-
 Man hours consumption.
 High amount of consumables like chart and pens
required to be stocked.
 Upkeep of paper charts removed from recorders is
difficult.
 Retrieval of history is time consuming.
 Time tagging of history was not possible.

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Pressure Gauge Accessories
UNION
SERVICE INTENDED
Used for adapting size of the pressure tap
is different the size of the pressure instrument
thread.

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UNION Gauge
SERVICE INTENDED
It is used for positive sealing while the
pressure gauge may be directed into
any direction

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Siphon Tube
SERVICE INTENDED
It is used for protecting the
pressure
Gauge from the effect of hot
pressure
Media like steam and also
reducing the
effect of rapid pressure surges.

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Pulsating Damper
SERVICE INTENDED
It is used for reducing the pressure
pulsation flowing from pump or air
compressor in order to facilitate
pressure gauge reading. if the
liquids and
gases only are clean enough and
compatible with the material of the
dampener. It is applicable to kind
of
liquids or gases.

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Snuber
SERVICE INTENDED
Used for suppressing the
effect of
pressure pulses and
pressure spike.
It features an adjustable
needle valve
to enable to restricting
flow as
operating conditions may
demand.

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CONDENSING POT
It is used for protecting the
pressure instruments From the
effect of hot pressure media like
steam. It is used for the same
purpose as SYPHON TUBE and
mainly, is provided for Pressure
Transmitter or Differential
Pressure Transmitter.

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Gauge Protector
SERVICE INTENDED
It is used for protecting
the
gauges from over range
pressure.
The gauge protector close
at a
Adjusted set-point
pressure

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Instrument Mani fold valve
SERVICE INTENDED
It is used for switching flow
between
one common connection
and the
other two connections.
The instrument manifold
valve is
applied to the pressure
gauge
and pressure transmitter

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Pressure Switch
A pressure switch is a form of switch that makes
electrical contact when a certain
set pressure has been reached on its input. This
is used to provide on/off switching from
a pneumatic or hydraulic source. The switch
may be designed to make contact either on
pressure rise or on pressure fall.

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 Switch-It is a device used to make or break the
electric circuit.
 Pressure Switch-It is an instrument used to make
or break the electric circuit on crossing the
pressure setting.
 Application of pressure switch-
• Logic / Inter locking.
• Alarm.
• Safety.

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 Objective is to train trainee about following:
 Definition
 Level in open & closed tanks
 Level Gauge
 D/P cell Principle & adjustment
 Calibration of D/P cell level transmitters
 Level switch P/M & LIA'S.

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 Definition
 Level measurement is mainly used for process
industry for ensuring the level of liquid in the tank.
 In power plant Boiler level is to be ensured
precisely for ensuring the heat sink of nuclear
reactor.
 Moderator Level is ensured for nuclear plant for
moderation of fast neutrons.
 Various sumps and tanks level is needed for
ensuring the min level of liquid for emergency
purpose.

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Direct Methods-
 Sight glass
 Dip stick
 Bob & Tape method
 Float method
Indirect method-
 Pressure created due to head of liquid
 Bubbler method.
 Capacitance method.

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Float system :
 Float rides up and down on the surface
of the liquid.
 Float displacement is proportional to
the level in the tank.

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 Pressure created by liquid head is-
P α Hd
Where -
• P is the pressure.
• H is the head of liquid.
• d is the density of liquid.

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 Boiler level is measured by differential pressure
method.
 High side of transmitter is connected to
measuring leg.
 Low side of transmitter is connected to
reference leg.
 Out put of transmitter increases with increasing
level .
 Condensate pot is used to keep the reference
leg level constant.
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Bubbler method-
 Bubbler method works on back pressure
principle.
 It consists of a tube dipped in the measured
liquid and is connected with a source of
air/gas/Helium at sufficient pressure.
 The back pressure created by level is measured
by differential pressure cells/pressure gauge.
 Dial of pressure gauge is calibrated in units of
level.

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Open Tank Measurement
The simplest application is the fluid level in an open
tank. Figure shows a typical open tank level
measurement installation using a pressure capsule level
transmitter.
If the tank is open to atmosphere, the high-pressure side
of the level transmitter will be connected to the base of
the tank while the low-pressure side will be vented to
atmosphere. In this manner, the level transmitter acts as a
simple pressure transmitter.

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We have:
P high = P atm + S⋅H
P low = P atm
Differential pressure ΔP = Phigh - Plow = S⋅H
The level transmitter can be calibrated to output 4
mA when the tank is at 0% level and 20 mA when
the tank is at 100% level.

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Closed Tank Measurement
In a closed tank , gas or vapour exists on top of the liquid,
the gas pressure must be compensated
A change in the gas pressure will cause a change in
transmitter output. Moreover, the pressure exerted by the
gas phase may be so high that the hydrostatic pressure of
the liquid column becomes insignificant.
For example, the measured hydrostatic head in a CANDU
boiler may be only three meters (30 kPa) or so, whereas
the steam pressure is typically 5 MPa.

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Compensation can be achieved by applying the gas
pressure to both the high and low-pressure sides of the
level transmitter. This cover gas pressure is thus used
as a back pressure or reference pressure on the LP
side of the DP cell.
One can also immediately see the need for the three-
valve manifold to protect the DP cell against these
pressures. The different arrangement of the sensing
lines to the DP cell is indicated a typical closed tank
application.

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We have:
Phigh = Pgas + S⋅H
Plow = Pgas
ΔP = Phigh - Plow = S⋅H
The effect of the gas pressure is
cancelled and only the pressure
due to
the hydrostatic head of the liquid
is
sensed. When the low-pressure
impulse line is connected
directly to
the gas phase above the liquid
level, it
is called a dry leg.

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Dry Leg System
A full dry leg
installation with three-
valve manifold is shown
in Figure.
Here the measuring
legs of low pressure
and high pressure are
ensured dry.

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Wet Leg System
In a wet leg system, the low-
pressure impulse line is
completely filled with liquid
(usually the same liquid as
the process) and hence the
name wet leg.
A level transmitter, with the
associated three-valve
manifold, is used in an
identical manner to the dry
leg system.

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 Level Compensation
It would be idealistic to say that the DP cell can
always be located at the exact the bottom of the
vessel we are measuring fluid level in. Hence,
the measuring system has to consider the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the sensing
lines themselves. This leads to two
compensations required.
 ZERO SUPPRESSION
 ZERO ELEVATION

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Zero suppression
The level transmitter has to be
mounted X meters below the
base of an
open tank as shown in Figure

When the liquid level is at H

Meters, pressure on the high-
pressure side of the transmitter
will
be:
 Phigh = S⋅H + S⋅ X + Patm ΔP = Phigh - Plow = S⋅H + S⋅ X
 Plow = Patm

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Zero Elevation
When the liquid level is at H
meters, we have:
Phigh = Pgas + S⋅H
Plow = Pgas + S⋅ X
ΔP = Phigh - Plow = S⋅H - S⋅ X
= - S (X - H)
ΔP sensed by the transmitter is
always a negative number

To properly calibrate the transmitter, a positive bias (+S⋅ X) is

needed to elevate the transmitter output. This positive biasing
technique is called zero elevation.

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DP cell Principle
Capacitive type pressure
sensing element consists
of a diaphragm capsule
connected with link, and
movable capacitor plate
with dielectric
arrangement as shown in
figure

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 Objectives is to train trainee about the
following
 Basic Flow elements (Structure, Applications-
Installation - Sample Sizing calculation)
 Reynolds number
 Delta P Meters (Construction & Calibration)
 Flow metering loop including accessories
 Flow switches
 Flow Indicating Alarms
 Calibration of flow transmitter.

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 Flow is the motion of the substance.
 Flow is the motion of the particles.
 Flow is the transfer of the substance
from one place to another place.

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 Flow is measured in
• Quantity measurement.
• Quantity rate measurement.
Q=AV
Where
Q=Flow rate.
A=area of restriction.
V=Velocity of fluid

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RENOLYDS NUMBER
Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless
number that gives a measure of the ratio of inertial
forces to viscous forces and consequently quantifies
the relative importance of these two types of forces
for given flow conditions.
They are also used to characterize
different flow regimes, such as laminar or turbulent flow

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 Bernoulli's theorem
Total energy of flowing fluid in pipe
remains constant but form of energy will
change.
Type of energy in fluid-
Kinetic energy=1/2mv2.
Pressure energy=p/ρ.
Static energy =Z

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 Flow rate is

Q=AV
Q=Cd A ΔP
Where
Q=Flow rate.
Cd = Coefficient of discharge.
A=Area of restriction.

ΔP =Differential pressure across the restriction

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Flow measurements units
• LPM: Liters per minute .
• GPM: Gallons per minute.
• IGPM: Imperial Gallons per minute.
• CMPH Cubic meter per hour.
• CFM: Cubic feet per minute.
• Kg/Hrs.
• CC/minute

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Relation in Flow measurements units
• GPM =3.5 LPM
• IGPM =4.5 LPM
• CMPH =1000 LPH
• CMPH =1000 Kg PH.
• CFM=27LPM.
• CC/minute =gm/m

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Instruments Working of Bernoulli‘ principle.
Flow is proportional to differential pressure,
when area of restriction is constant.
• Orifice
• Venturi meter
• Nozzle
• Pitot Tube

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A d/p flow meter consists of three basic parts:
• The primary elements which is
installed in the pipe and produces a
differential pressure.
• The secondary element which
detects the differential pressure
• The meter which is used to indicate
the actual flow.

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 It consists of a thin plate, having a hole,
placed in the pipe such that the cross
sectional area of the pipe is reduced.
 The increase in velocity of the fluid through
this restriction will result in a pressure
drop, which is proportional to flow rate.
 Flow rate is  to square root of differential
pressure.

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Types of orifice
Concentric

Eccentric

Segmental

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 Permanent pressure loss is 30% of its differential
pressure created by it.
 Size is small.
 Low cost.
 Ease to install.
 Less space is required for installation.

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 The venturi tube has a gently curved,
streamlined converging section and a long,
gradually expanding diversing section.
 The venturi tube is accurate and causes little
pressure loss.
 Flow rate is  to square root of differential
pressure

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 Permanent pressure loss is 5% of its
differential pressure created by it.
 Size is Large.
 Low high.
 More space is required for installation
install.

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 The pitot tube measures fluid velocity at one
point in a pipe.
 Measurement is determined by placing the
impact opening directly in the line of flow
and the static opening at 900 from the impact
opening.
 The differential pressure across these taps is
proportional to velocity.

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 Pitot tube

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Instrument Works on Bernoulli’s principle.
Flow is proportional to area of restriction. when
differential pressure is constant
Variable Area Rotameter
Rotameter consists of-
 Tapered tube.
 Float.
 Scale.

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Tapered tube.
• Made by glass or any other material. Smaller end
kept down and larger end kept up side.
Float
• Density of float is more then liquid.

Scale
• Mounted on the side of tapered tube and
calibrated in flow unit.

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 The variable area meter consists of a float in a
tapered tube.
 The tube is positioned vertically with the tapers
opening upwards.
 This type of meter places a restriction in the fluid
flow, and the differential pressure at this restriction is
kept constant.
 The orifice area varies with the position of the float,
and the flow rate is directly proportional to the orifice
area.

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Rota meters
Force acting on float-
 Down ward force

• Weight of float.
• Force due to out put pressure.

 Upward force
• Buoyancy force.
• Force due to input pressure.

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 Objective is to train trainee about the
following:
 Definition
 Local & Remote Detectors/Sensors
 Filled System - Bimetallic, Vapor Pressure
 Thermocouple, RTDs Principles construction and
characteristics, testing of RTD & T/Cs, Lead
compensation
 Temp. Transmitter (Block diagram of R/I ,E/I)
 TIA meter alarm settings & calibration.
 Temperature Switch (Principle, Mechanism).

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Temperature
The temperature of a substance is simply
a number that tells you how hot or cold
the substance is. Because power
generation is essentially a
thermodynamic process, an up to date
knowledge of temperature of the plant is
most important.

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MEASUREMENT UNITS:-

1.FAHRENHEIT
2.CELSIUS
3.RANKINE
4.KELVIN SCALES

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 Temperature measurement

From Celsius To Celsius

Fahrenheit [°F] = [°C] × 9⁄5 + 32 [°C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5⁄9
Kelvin [K] = [°C] + 273.15 [°C] = [K] − 273.15
Rankine [°R] = ([°C] + 273.15) × 9⁄5 [°C] = ([°R] − 491.67) × 5⁄9

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 Concept used for measuring temperature lies
on following property:

 Change in length or volume i.e. in bimetallic strip

 Change in density i.e. in liquid filled system
 Gradient of voltage generated due to temperature
difference i.e. used in Thermocouples
 Change in resistance i.e. in RTD

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 Instrument Used for temperature
Measurement are

 Bimetallic
 Vapor Pressure
 Filled System
 Thermocouples
 RTD’s

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Bi Metallic
A bimetallic strip is used to convert a
temperature change into mechanical displacement.
The strip consists of two strips of different metals
which expand at different rates as they are heated.

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Industrial application of Bimetallic Strip

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Bimetallic Thermometers
Another common configuration of
the bimetallic strip is coiled in a
helix to increase the swing or
displacement similar to the coil
above. In this shape, the strip is
more rugged and less subject to
vibration. A helical bimetallic
thermometer is shown in Figure.
Bimetallic thermometers in general
are very rugged and require little
maintenance. They are usually used
to measure process parameters such
as pump and bearing temperature
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Filled System

Liquid Filled System

Gas Filled System
Vapor Pressure System

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 Schematic
construction of a
saturated vapor
pressure
thermometer:
1) bulb containing
two phases of a
substance;
2) pressure sensor;
3) connecting tube;
4) filling system

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THERMOCOUPLES
A thermocouple is a device that converts thermal energy
directly into an electric voltage when a temperature
gradient exists between the two end junctions of a pair of
dissimilar metal wires.
One end is fused together to form a measuring junction,
the hot junction, and the other end, the cold junction, is
connected to a measuring device.

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Principle of Operation
Thermo Electric Effect which states that when any
conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will
generate a voltage.
Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a
circuit in which the two legs generate different voltages,
leaving a small difference in voltage available for
measurement. That difference increases with
temperature, and is between 1 and 70 micro volts per
degree Celsius (µV/°C) for standard metal combinations.

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Voltage–temperature relationship

For typical metals used in thermocouples, the output

voltage increases almost linearly with the temperature
difference (ΔT) over a bounded range of temperatures.

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Temperature measurement

Types of Thermocouple
Temperature range °C
Type
(continuous)
K 0 to +1100
J 0 to +750
N 0 to +1100
R 0 to +1600
S 0 to 1600
B +200 to +1700
T −185 to +300
E 0 to +800
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Temperature v/s milli -volts for Thermocouple

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Cold junction compensation

By adding the voltage of the

ice point reference
junction, we have now
referenced the reading V to
0°C.

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 Testing of Thermo Couple

 Comparing it with the standard device for

measurement.
 Suspecting Probe and replacing it with a new
one.
 Using portable temperature indicator .

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RTD
The resistance of certain metals changes as the
temperature changes. This characteristic is the
basis for a temperature-measuring instrument
called the resistance-temperature detector
(RTD).
RTDs act as electrical transducers, converting
temperature changes to voltage signals by
measuring resistance.

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Types of material
• Platinum
• Copper
• Nickel

Pt-100-Platinum RTD with 100 Ohm resistance at 00C.

Pt-200-Platinum RTD with 200 Ohm resistance at 00C

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Temperature measurement

Rt = Ro (1 + at)

Where Rt is the resistance

of material at the
temperature ‘t’ while Ro is
the reference temp and a is
the resistive temp
coefficient of the RTD.

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Constructing

 Platinum thin film RTD

 Inner Coil Wound RTD
 Outer Wound RTD

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Lead Compensation

2 wire RTD
Two extension wires coming from
the bulb, to connect the one arm of
bridge. The
resistance of both extension wire
will be added in RTD resistance. If
surrounding
ambient temperature of leads is
changing than valve of Ra and Rb is
also changes. It
affects the change in resistance,
which is not occurred by measuring
temperature. There is a error in
measurement arrangement.
Ra, Rb = Extension leads resistance.
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3 Wire RTD
To compensate the change in
resistance of the extension
lead, 3 wire systems is used
as shown in figure.
Lead resistance is added in
both arm of bridge so it
cancel out the effects of
change in head resistance
due to ambient temperature.

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 4 wire RTD

This is the ideal measurement

for RTD to nullify the effects of
leads but it leads to extra pair
of wires to be laid from
instrument to measurement.

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Temperature Transmitter
Transmitters are used to transmit the signal in
the range of 4-20 mA signal to control room
these are used for remote monitoring of the
temperature.

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Objective is to enhance trainee knowledge
regarding
• Principle of
a) Speed
b) Vibration
c) Position
d) Eccentricity measurement
• Installation and Calibration of
a. Speed
b. Vibration probes
c. Transmitter
d. indicator

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Why Turbovisiory instrumentation needed?

Turbine is the one of the most important device in any

Power plant and to ensure safe and reliable
operateability of this device its required that the main
areas for its safe operation must always be available
with the operator.

Turbovisiory parameters are used for monitring and

protection of turbine in case of any un safe operation.

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 Turbovisiory Instrument
ECCENTRICITY DETECTOR
FRONT PEDASTAL

Differential EXPN. BARRING GEAR

DETECTOR THRUST
BEARING
EXCITER
GENERATOR

HP
TURBINE
BRG-2

BRG-3
BRG-1

BRG-4

BRG-6

BRG-7
BRG-5
Vertical
LP
vibration
TURBINE
CASING AXIAL
EXPANSION vibration

Speed ROTOR EXPANSION

detector Horizontal
vibration
Bearing vibration detectors

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 Velocity Transducer to measure speed

 This device operates on the spring-mass-damper principle, is usually of

low natural frequency and actually operates above its natural frequency.
 The transducing element is either a moving coil with a stationary
magnet, or a stationary coil with a moving magnet.
 A voltage is produced in a conductor when the conductor cuts a
magnetic field and the voltage is proportional to the rate at which the
magnetic lines are cut. Thus, a voltage is developed across the coil,
which is proportional to velocity.

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Turbovisiory Instrument
speed Measurement

SENSOR

TOOTH GEAR
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 Schematic
shown about the speed
measurement of turbine

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The speed Measurement channel measures the turbine
speed continuously up to full speed range of the
turbine.

The speed of the Turbine shaft is measured from signals

produced by detection adjacent to toothed collars
mounted on the shaft. The signal produced in this
manner has a frequency, which is proportional to shaft
speed. This detector output is processed in the
processing circuits, to get voltage /current output
suitable for recording /indicating and relay contact
output for alarm/logic circuit purpose.

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The vibration measurement channel: measures
the peak to peak amplitude of vibration at the
various bearing housings

Vibration detectors
(A) Seismic mass detector:
(B) Accelerometer

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Bearing Vibration Measurement
Sensor
Housing

Spring

Plunger
Coil

N
Permanen
Permanent t Return
Magnet Path
S

Generator
Vibrations

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 Differential Expansion
Measurement Turbine
Shaft

L L
1 2

d1 d2

Measuring Turbine
Coils Casing
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 ROTOR DIFFERENTIAL EXPANSION:

The rotor differential expansion is measured to safeguard

blade clearances. The detector is mounted is turbine
‘FRONT PEDESTAL’, because of

1) The cylinder environment (High Temperature,

Pressure and moisture) is not suitable to install the
detector internally.
2) Easy access of detector without removing cylinder
casing

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Eccentricity Measurement
Eccentricity is a measurement of the amount of
sag or bow in a rotor. It may also provide
indication of a bent shaft. This measurement is
used by the operator to indicate when the
machine can safely be brought up to speed
without causing rubs or damage to the seals.

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 Rotor Eccentricity Measurement

Eccentricity Considered as the out of Centre excursion of the axis of a

shaft rotation, knowledge of this parameter is essential to give prior
warning of a bent shaft or any form of shaft distortion which may
eventually cause collapse of the bearings.

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 Objective is to train trainee regarding the following

(i) Characteristics of control valves and their selection - Quick

Opening, linear and equal percentage - Valve sizing calculation.
(ii) Actuators - Type of actuator (Diaphragm and piston actuator) -
Direct acting & reverse acting – Signal range - Testing and
calibration.
(iii) Positioners - Reason of use - Advantages - Types - Principles -
Limitations - Testing and calibration.
(iv) Solenoid valves - Types of solenoids valves (two way, three way
and four way) - Working principle - Operation, application and
testing.

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 What Is A Control Valve?

 Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of

control loops all networked together to produce a product
to be offered for sale. Each of these control loops is
designed to keep some important process variable such
as pressure, flow, level, temperature, etc. within a required
operating range to ensure the quality of the end product.
 The most common final control element in the process
control industries is the control valve. The control valve
manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or
chemical compounds, to compensate for the load
disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as
close as possible to the desired set point.

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 Diagram
showing the
Curve between

% max flow
v/s
% rated travel

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Actuators
Types of Actuator
• Diaphragm actuators ( Syllabus)
• Piston actuators ( Syllabus)
• Pneumatic actuators
• Electro-hydraulic actuators
• Manual actuators
• Rack Pinion actuators
• Electric actuators

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Diaphragm Actuators
Pneumatically operated diaphragm actuators use
air supply from controller, positioner, or other
source.

 Net output thrust is the difference between

diaphragm force and opposing spring force.
 Molded diaphragms provide linear performance
and increased travels.

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 Output thrust required and supply air pressure
available dictate size.
 Diaphragm actuators are simple, dependable,
and economical.

Various styles include: -

• direct acting (increasing air pressure pushes down diaphragm
and extends actuator stem, fig);
• reverse-acting (increasing air pressure pushes up diaphragm
and retracts actuator stem, fig);

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 Piston Actuator
Piston actuators are pneumatically operated using high–
pressure plant air to 150 psig, often eliminating the need
for supply pressure regulator.
Piston actuators furnish maximum thrust output and fast
stroking speeds.
Piston actuators are double acting to give maximum
force in both directions, or spring return to provide fail-
open or fail-closed operation

Signal Range
 Pneumatic : 3psig-15psig with source of 20 psig
 Electrical Signal : 4 mA-20 mA

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Positioner

A position controller (servomechanism) that is

mechanically connected to a moving part of a final
control element or its actuator and that automatically
adjusts its output to the actuator to maintain a desired
position in proportion to the input signal

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 Pneumatic—A pneumatic signal (usually 3-15 psig) is
supplied to the positioner. The positioner translates this
to a required valve position and supplies the valve
actuator with the required air pressure to move the
valve to the correct position.
 Analog I/P—This positioner performs the same
function as the one above, but uses electrical current
(usually 4-20 mA) instead of air as the input signal.
 Digital—Although this positioner functions very much
as the Analog I/P described above, it differs in that the
electronic signal conversion is digital rather than
analog. The digital products cover three categories.

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 Positoner
Schematic for
Diaphragm
Actuator

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 Positioner
Schematic for
Piston Actuator

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 Solenoid Valves
Solenoid valves are those valve which are
operated by electrical solenoid coils.
 A Solenoid valve which is normally closed will
open on energisation of the solenoid coil, where
as a normally open valve will close on
energization.
 A very wide range of solenoid valves are
available for the complete process control
requirement, but we shall restrict our discussion
to some of the important types which are used in
process control as well as instrumentation

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 SV diagram

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 Basic types of Solenoid valves
1) AC and DC operated Solenoid valves
Solenoid valves are available e in A.C and D.C.
power supply operated.
The normal voltage range is 48 V dc, 24 V dc,
118 V A.C., 220 V AC 220 V D.C.
2) Direct and pilot operated
Push and pull type
3) Based on number of ports i.e. two way, three
way etc

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TYPES OF SOLENOID VALVES

We have the following types:-

 Two way
 Three way
 Four way
 Five way

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2 ways Solenoid Valve

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2 way SV

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 Application
of
3 way solenoid valve

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4 ways solenoid valve

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 Objective is to enhance trainee about the following

 Process characteristics :Self regulation, dead time,

single & multiple capacity process and process lag
.ON-OFF, proportional, Integral, Derivative controller
in P, PI, PD & PID combination
 Proportional controller (proportional Band, Optimum
setting, offset)
 Proportional plus reset (manual reset, automatic
reset, reset rate & its significance)
 Proportional plus reset plus rate . Rate action and its
application, Rate time and its significance).
 Study and testing of controllers (Foxboro and Fisher).

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 Process Characteristic

 SelfRegulation
 Dead Time
 Single Capacity process
 Multiple Capacity Process
 Process Lags

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 Self Regulation
 System which attempts to regulate their output are called as self
regulated system.
 Systems without self-regulation require closed
loop control, because the manipulated variable
must become zero as soon as the controlled
variable reaches the required equilibrium
 Practical experience shows that systems with
self-regulation are often much easier to control
than systems without self-regulation, because the
latter have a tendency to oscillate, i.e. they tend
to be more unstable.

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Controlled system with dead time

In systems with dead time there is no

dynamic response until a certain
amount of time has elapsed. The time
constant TL serves as a measure for
the dead time or lag.
Dead time is also referred to as
transport delay, because the
mechanism of dead time is often a
time delay caused by the
transportation of material at finite
speed across some distance

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Controlled system with energy storing
components
Delays between changes in the manipulated
and controlled variable are not only created
due to dead times. Any controlled system
usually consists of several components that are
characterized by the capacity to store energy.
The number of storing elements decide the
order of Process lag for the given system

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Controlled systems with energy storing
components are classified according to the
number of lags that produce an effect.
For instance, a first-order system has one
dynamic energy storing component, a
second-order system has two energy
storing components, etc. A system without
any lags is also referred to as a .zero-order
system. (see also P controlled system). A
behavior resembling that of a zero-order
system may occur in a liquid-filled pressure
system without equalizing tanks
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Lags
Mechanical and chemical processes exhibit a
similar tendency: an “inertial” opposition to
rapid changes. Even instruments themselves
naturally damp sudden stimuli. We could have
just as easily subjected a pressure transmitter
to a series of pressure pulses resembling
square waves, and witnessed the output signal
exhibit the same damped response:

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Example of Single Capacity Process Lag or First order lag :
There is a sudden change in the position of CV due to demand
change thus the process value changes from its earlier state

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The flow rate will
change and will try to
settle to a new position
but this will not be
achieved sudden and it
will required a time: this
delay is termed as
Process Lags and the
here the system
performed first order
delay or Single Capacity
process Lag

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 A mathematically
convenient way to model
the lags in a system is in
terms of phase shift when
driven by a sinusoidal-
shaped stimulus.
 A function exhibiting lag
will cause the outgoing
waveform to lag behind
the input waveform by a
certain number of degrees
at one frequency.

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 Control Modes
 In control engineering, a controlled system
is primarily characterized by its dynamic
behavior which also determines the scope
and quality required to s
 Frequently, the so-called step response of
the controlled system is used to reflect this
dynamic behavior.

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Types of
control modes
used for
controller

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 Discontinuous Controller mode On-Off Control

Example This is the simplest form of control, used by almost all

domestic thermostats.
When the oven is cooler than the set-point temperature the
heater is turned on at maximum power, M, and once the
oven is hotter than the set-point temperature the heater is
switched off completely.

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Depending on the resulting dynamic
behavior, the controlled systems can be
classified as follows:
P controlled systems (proportional control
action)
I controlled systems (integral control action)
P+I controlled mode (proportional + integral
control)
P+I+D controlled mode (Proportional + control
+ derivate control)
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 It must be differentiated between controlled
systems in which a new equilibrium is
established after a disturbance or change in
the manipulated variable and systems with
a continuously changing controlled variable

 Systems with self-regulation only change

until a new stable output value is reached.
 Systems without self-regulation do not
reach a new state of equilibrium.

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P controlled system
In controlled systems with proportional
action, the controlled variable x changes
proportional to the manipulated variable y.

Example: Flow control

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If the valve travel
changes in the pressure
control system illustrated
in Fig. , a new flow rate q
is reached (almost)
instantaneously.
Depending on the valve
flow coefficient, the
controlled variable
changes proportional to
the manipulated
variable; the system has
proportional control
action.

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Fig. shows the block
diagram symbol for
proportional action and
the dynamic behavior of a
P controlled system after a
step change in the input
variable. The
characteristic curves
clearly show that a
proportional controlled
system is a system with
self-regulation, since a
new equilibrium is
reached immediately after
the step change

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I controlled system
Integral controlled systems are systems without
self-regulation:
if the manipulated variable does not equal zero,
the integral controlled system responds with a
continuous change . continuous increase or
decrease . of the controlled variable.
A new equilibrium is not reached.

Example: Liquid level in a tank

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In a tank with an outlet
and equally high supply
and discharge flow rates,
a constant liquid level is
reached. If the supply or
discharge flow rate
changes, the liquid level
will rise or fall. The level
changes the quicker, the
larger the difference
between supply and
discharge flow.

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Fig. shows the dynamic
behavior of an I
controlled system after
a step change in the
input variable as well
as the derived block
diagram symbol for
integral control action.
The integral-action
time Tn serves as a
measure for the
integral control action
and represents the rise
time f the controlled
variable.
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Derivative controller (D controller)
D controllers generate the manipulated variable
from the rate of change of the error and not as P
controllers from their amplitude.
These are also termed as Anticipation Control
Action.
A steady-state error signal, however, is not
recognized by D controllers, because regardless of
how big the error, its rate of change is zero
Derivative-only controllers are rarely used in
practice they are used together with P controller.
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Proportional Integral Control
PI controllers are often employed in
practice. In this combination, one P and
one I controller are connected in parallel

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The dynamic
behavior is
marked by
the
proportional
-action
coefficient
KP and the
reset time
Tn .

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Proportional Derivative Control
The stability and overshoot problems that arise
when a proportional controller is used at high
gain can be mitigated by adding a term
proportional to the time-derivative of the error
signal,
This technique is known as PD control. The value
of the damping constant, D, can be adjusted to
achieve a critically damped response to changes
in the set-point temperature, as shown in the next
figure.

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This technique is known
as PD control. The value
of the damping constant,
D, can be adjusted to
achieve a critically
damped response to
changes in the set-point
temperature, as shown in
the next figure.
Too little damping results
in overshoot and ringing,
too much causes an
unnecessarily slow
response.

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PID control

PD control deals neatly with

the overshoot and ringing
problems associated with
proportional control it does
not cure the problem with
the steady-state error. So
Integral action is used.
The effect of the integral term is to change the heater
power until the time-averaged value of the temperature error
is zero. The method works quite well but complicates the
mathematical analysis slightly because the system is now
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 Identify the symbols and interpret the C&I
drawings.
 understand the operation of relays and logic
control circuits
 Locate & rectify the faults in 48 VDC logic
circuits.
 Understand the basic concepts of
programmable logic controller and its
application

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For logic & Loop circuit checking, following
drawings are
frequently used.

1. Elementary Drawing (ED).

2. Wiring Diagram (W.D).
3. Terminal list (TL).
4. Scheduled (Sch).
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INSTRUMENTS USED IN NPP

Transmitter  T
Element  E
Indicator  I
Recorder  R
Controller  C
Alarm  A
Indicator & Alarm  IA
Indicator & Controller  IC
Switch  S
COPS  Control Power Supply

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INSTRUMENTS USED IN NPP

Junction Box  JB
Neutron Sensor  NE
Neutron Rate meter  NT
Neutron Recorder  NR
Radiation Meter  QT
Temperature / Thermo Well  TW

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 What is a RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch.

The relay contacts can be made to operate in
the prearranged fashion. For instance,
normally open contacts closes and normally
closed contacts opens. In electromagnetic
relays, the contacts however complex they
might be, have multiple positions.
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 Electromagnetic relay
 Power Relay
 Time Delay Relay
 Latching Relay
 Crystal Can Relay
 Coaxial Relay

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 The 48 Vdc control power supply is designed
for a very high degree of reliability of service; the
positive and negative buses of the 48V d.c. control
circuits are insulated from ground. This offer fault
tolerance capability in the event that if a ground fault
occurs on any one of 48 vdc elements, spurious
operation will not occur unless second ground fault is
established .
In order to ensure maximum reliability a ground
fault detector device with alarm contractors is
installed to monitor the 48 vdc positive and negative
buses insulation. This measurement can be made
manually or automatically.
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A programmable logic controller (PLC) is an
industry harden computer-based unit that
performs discrete or continuous control function.
originally intended as relay replacement
equipment, but now they also performs
additional functions and have data highway
networking capabilities.
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 PROGRAMMING
DEVICE

POWER SUPPLY CPU MEMORY

I/O SYSTEM MODULES

OUTPUT DEVICES INPUT DEVICES

(RELAY, SOLENOID VALVES) (LIMIT SWITCHES, PUSH-
BUTTON)
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 Enhanced Reliability
 On-line fault diagnostic capabilities
 Interactive operator interface
 Flexibility while setting and changing the
logic
during commissioning and operation
 On-line repair facility
 I/O forcing through software.
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