pHARMACOLOGY

“NEUROTRANSMITTER”
Supporting Lecturer : NOVIA SINATA,M.Si,Apt

Group 2 (S1-3B)
1) Annisa Amalyah (1801047)
2) Dwi Anisah (1801051)
3) Miftahul Jannah M (1801060)
4) Resky Pertiwi (1801069)
5) Yanto (1801079)

SEKOLAH TINGGI ILMU FARMASI RIAU

• A neurotransmitter is messenger that carries,
boosts, and balances signals between neurons,
or nerve cells, and other cells in the body.
• Chemical messengers can affect a wide variety
of both physical and psychological functions
including heart rate, sleep, appetite, mood,
and fear.
• Billions of neurotransmitter molecules work
constantly to keep brains functioning, managing
everything from our breathing to our heartbeat
to our learning and concentration levels.
 Neurotransmitters can be
classified by their function:

1) Excitatory neurotransmitters
These types of neurotransmitters have excitatory
effects on the neuron, meaning increase the likelihood
that the neuron will fire an action potential. Some of
the major excitatory neurotransmitters include
epinephrine and norepinephrine.

2) Inhibitory neurotransmitters
These types of neurotransmitters have inhibitory
effects on the neuron; decrease the likelihood that the
neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the major
inhibitory neurotransmitters include serotonin and
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
 3) Modulatory neurotransmitters
These neurotransmitters, often referred to as
neuromodulators, are capable of affecting a larger
number of neurons at the same time. These
neuromodulators also influence the effects of other
chemical messengers.
Where synaptic neurotransmitters are released
by axon terminals to have a fast-acting impact on other
receptor neurons, neuromodulators diffuse across a
larger area and are more slow-acting.
 Types neurotransmitters
1.Amino Acids
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Acts as the body's main inhibitory chemical messenger. GABA
contributes to vision, motor control, and plays a role in the regulation
of anxiety.
Benzodiazepines, which are used to help treat anxiety, function
by increasing the efficiency of GABA neurotransmitters, which can
increase feelings of relaxation and calm.
Glutamate
Fungsional : plays a role in cognitive functions such as memory and
learning.
Excessive amounts of glutamate can cause excitotoxicity
resulting in cellular death. This excitotoxicity caused by glutamate
build-up is associated with some diseases and brain injuries including
Alzheimer's disease, stroke, and epileptic seizures.
2. Peptides
Oxytocint
Produced by the hypothalamus and plays a role in
social recognition, bonding, and sexual reproduction.
Synthetic oxytocin such as Pitocin is often used as an
aid in labor and delivery. Both oxytocin and Pitocin cause
the uterus to contract during labor.

Endorphins
Neurotransmitters than inhibit the transmission of
pain signals and promote feelings of euphoria.For example,
experiencing a "runner's high" is an example of pleasurable
feelings generated by the production of endorphins.
3. Monoamines
Epinephrine
Epinephrine (adrenaline) is a stress hormone
that is released by the adrenal system. However, it
functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain.

Norepinephrine
Neurotransmitterto help mobilize the body
and brain to take action in times of danger or
stress. Levels of this neurotransmitter are typically
lowest during sleep and highest during times of
stress.
Histamine
neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal
cordIt plays a role in allergic reactions and is
produced as part of the immune systems
response to pathogens.

Dopamine
plays an important role in the coordination
of body movements.also involved in reward,
motivation, and additions.Parkinson's
disease, which is a degenerative disease that
results in tremors and motor movement
impairments, is caused by the loss of
dopamine-generating neurons in the brain.
Serotonin
Plays an important role in regulating and
modulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and
appetite.Selective serotonin reuptake referred to as SSRI
work to balance serotonin levels by blocking the reuptake
of serotonin in the brain, which can help improve mood
and reduce feelings of anxiety.

4) Purines
Adenosine
acts as a neuromodulator in the brain and is involved in
suppressing arousing and improving sleep.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral
nervous system.
5) Gasotransmitters
Nitric oxide
Plays a role in affecting smooth muscles, relaxing
them to allow blood vessels to dilate and increase blood
flow to certain areas of the body.
Carbon monoxide
Acts as a neurotransmitter that helps modulate the
body's inflammatory response.

6) Acetylcholine
Found in both the central and peripheral nervous
systems, it is the primary.It plays a role in muscle
movements as well as memory and learning.
 A Type of Neurotransmitter receptor in
the central nervous system

1. Glutamate
Glutamate plays a role in the delivery of
excitatory impulse, after interacting with
excitatory amino acid (EAAs) including ionotropic
receptors (NMDA, AMPA, and kainate) and
metabotropic receptors.
 Glutamate receptors function to modulate
synaptic plasticity, related to communication or
interactions between nerve cells, which play a
role in the formation of memory, learning and CNS
regulation.
2. GABA (Gamma Amino Butyric acid)
Gaba is the main inhibiting neurotransmitter in the
brain, while glycine is an inhibiting neurotransmitter in
the spinal cord.
The GABAA receptor aganis compound is muskimol,
while the antagonist is bicuculin.
The GABAB receptor is a metabotropic transmembrane
receptor in both the central SS and peripheral SS
an antispastic drug, baclofen is an agonist that acts to
activate the GABAB receptor while saclofen is the
receptor antagonist.
3. Histamin
The role of histamine in the brain is
very small compared to the tissue, and its
release in the brain follows the circardian
cycle.Histamine 1 (H-1) receptors play a
role in aurosal and awareness. Evidenced
by the administration of the first generation
of antihistamines for example,
chlorpheniramine, dimenhydrinate produce
sedation effects.
4. Dopamine
• Dopamine has an important role in the brain, and is involved in
several brain diseases such as Parkinson's, schizophrenia.
• In the brain, the amount of dopamine is relatively less than that of
norefinephrine.
• Dopamine synthesis occurs in the dopaminergic nerve
• Dopamine is metabolized by the MAO and COM enzymes.
• There are three dopaminergic pathways in the central nervous
system, namely:
1. The nigrostriatal pathway, which plays an important role in
motor control.
2. Mesolimbic / mesocortical pathway, which plays a role in
emotions and behavioral effects.
3.The tuberohipofiseal system, which plays a role in controlling
endocrine gland secretion
 Types of dopamine
receptors
1. Connected to the Gs protein:
The D1 and D5 receptors
activates adenylate cyclase to
increase cAMP
2. Connected with Gi proteins
D2, D3 and D4 receptors
that inhibit adenylate cyclase
thus inhibiting cAMP formation.
 5. Serotonin
•Serotonin is also called 5-hydroxytryptamine
•Serotonin undergoes metabolism through oxidative
deamination reactions with the MAO enzyme.
•Serotoninergic nerves have a cell body (soma) located
in the pons and upper medulla
•Serotonergic nerve function is related to: behavioral
responses (hallucinations), appetite, emotions, and
mood, and nausea-vomiting.
 Types Serotonin
of receptors
1. The 5-HT1 receptor is connected to Gi
protein
Which are present in presynaptic cells
It functions to control serotoninergic nerve
activity.
2. The 5-HT2 receptor is connected to the
Gq protein (phospholipase C /
inositoltrifosfat pathway)
These receptors are numerous in many
postsynaptic cells in the cortex and limbic
system
Used in the treatment of migrants (Agonists)
Antipsychotic drugs (antagonists)
3. 5HT3 receptors
• Excitatory in the area of postrema
associated with nausea and vomiting
• Used as anti-emetic drugs example
ondansetron, dolasetron, and tropiseetron
(Antagonists)
4. The 5-HT4 receptor
• Receptor is connected to Gs protein so that
it is excitatory
• Found in the digestive tract and brain
striatum
• Produces stimulation of nerve cells, used to
stimulate gastric emptying example
metoclopramide (agonist)
 A Type of Neurotransmitter receptor
in the Autonomic nervous system

1. Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine is an important neurotransmitter in the
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
Acetylcholine receptors is:
 The muscarinic acetylcholine receptor
Muscarinic receptors in the brain are more
exploitative, namely M1, M3 and M5 receptors. In the
brain, there are more muscarinic receptors than nicotinic
receptors.
Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors :
•M1 receptors are found in the central nervous system
(spp),These receptors chain the effects of excitement
•M2 receptors are found in the heart organ.These receptors
show an inhibitory effect
•M3 receptors, like M1, have extensional effects, found in
several organs, including the smooth muscles of the digestive
system and eyes, endothelial blood vessels, exocrine glands.

 The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.

Nicotinic receptors are more common in the
presynaptic nerve, functioning to stimulate the
release of other neurotransmitters such as dopamine
and glutamate.
2. Norefinefrin
 Receptor α (α1 dan α2)
The blood vessels contain α1 receptors

 Receptor β adrenergik (β1, β2 dan β3)

• β1 receptors there are in the heart organ
• β2 receptors there are In the smooth muscle
of the bronchi and skeletal muscle blood
vessels
• β3 receptors there are In adipose tissue
 NEUROTRANSMITER MECHANISM

• Neurotransmitter molecules are synthesized from precursors with enzyme

catalysts
• Neurotransmitter molecules are stored in vesicles
• Neurotransmitters that leak are degraded by enzymes
• The action potential causes vesicles to join the presynaptic membrane and
release neurotransmitters into the synapse
• The released neurotransmitter will bind to the autoreceptor and inhibit the
release of the next neurontransmitter
• Neurotransmitters bind to post synapse receptors
THINGS THAT MAKE NEUROTRANSMITERS
DO NOT WORK RIGHT

 Neurons might not manufacture

enough of a particular
neurotransmitter
 Too much of a particular
neurotransmitter may be
released
 Too many neurotransmitters may
be deactivated by enzymes
 Neurotransmitters may be
reabsorbed too quickly
 REFERENCE

Kendra Cherry, 2019,Identifying a Neurotransmitter

,https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-
neurotransmitter- 2795394

Endro Nugroho,Agung.2012.Farmakologi “Obat-obat

Penting dalam Pembelajaran Ilmu Farmasi dan
Dunis Kesehatan”.Yogyakarta:Pustaka Pelajar