Solutions

 We carry out many reactions in solutions

 Remember that in the liquid state molecules
move much easier than in the solid, hence the
mixing of reactants occurs faster

 Solute is the substance which we dissolve

 Solvent is the substance in which we
dissolve the solute
 In aqueous solutions, the solvent is water

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 Concentration of Solutions

 The concentration of a solution defines the

amount of solute dissolved in the solvent
 We will express the concentration of a
solution in one of the two most common ways:

 percent by mass
 molarity

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 Percent by mass of solute
mass of solute
% by mass of solute =  100%
mass of solution

mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

 What does it tell us?

 The mass of solute in 100 mass units of solution

m(solute)
ω(solute) =  100%
m(solution )

 usually expressed as “% w/w”

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Example 1
 What is the concentration of the
solution obtained by dissolving 25 g
of NaOH in 300.0 mL of water?

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 Example 2
 What mass of NaOH is required to prepare
250.0 g of solution that is 8.00% w/w NaOH?

m(NaOH)
% by mass (NaOH) =  100%
m(solution )

m(NaOH)
8.00% =  100%
250.0 g

250.0 g  8.00%
m(NaOH) =  20.0 g
100%

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 Example 3
 Calculate the mass of 8.00% w/w NaOH
solution that contains 32.0 g of NaOH.

m(NaOH)
% by mass (NaOH) =  100%
m(solution )

32.0 g
8.00% =  100%
m(solution )

32.0 g  100%
m(solution ) =  400. g
8.00%

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Example 4
 What volume of 12.0% KOH contains 40.0 g of
KOH? The density of the solution is 1.11 g/mL.

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 Molarity, or Molar Concentration
number of moles of solute
molarity 
number of liters of solution
n (solvent)  mol mmol 
M   or
V (solution)  L mL 

 Always divide the number of moles of

the solute by the volume of the solution,
not by the volume of the solvent

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 Example 5
 Calculate the molarity of a solution that contains
12.5 g of sulfuric acid in 1.75 L of solution.

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 Example 6
 Determine the mass of calcium nitrate required
to prepare 3.50 L of 0.800 M Ca(NO3)2.
 We first find the number of moles of Ca(NO3)2
dissolved in the solution:

# moles (solute)
M
V (solution)
# moles (Ca(NO3 )2 )
0.800 mol/L 
3.50 L
# moles (Ca(NO3 )2 )  0.800 mol/L  3.50 L  2.80 mol
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 Example 6
 Now we calculate the molar mass of Ca(NO3)2
and find its mass in grams necessary for
preparation of the solution:

Mr (Ca(NO3 )2 )  164.09 g/mol

m(Ca(NO3 )2 )  Mr (Ca(NO3 )2 )  # moles (Ca(NO3 )2 )

m(Ca(NO3 )2 )  164.09 g/mol  2.80 mol  459 g

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 Dilution of Solutions

n (solute)
M n (solute)  M V (solution)
V (solution)
 Solution 1: concentration = M1 n  M1 V1
volume = V1

 We add more solvent (dilute the solution)

concentration = M2
n  M2 V2
volume = V2
 The amount of solute remains the same
(we didn’t add any solute to the solution)
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 Dilution of Solutions

M1 V1  M2 V2

 If we know any 3 of these 4 quantities,

we can calculate the other one
 The relationship is appropriate for
dilutions but not for chemical reactions

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 Example 7
 If 10.0 mL of 12.0 M HCl is added to
enough water to give 100. mL of solution,
what is the concentration of the solution?

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Example 8
 What volume of 18.0 M sulfuric acid
is required to make 2.50 L of a 2.40
M sulfuric acid solution?
 V1 = ?
 M1 = 18.0 M
 V2 = 2.50 L
 M2 = 2.40 M

V1  18.0 M = 2.50 L  2.40 M

V1 = 0.333 L
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 Using Solutions in
Chemical Reactions

 Combine the concepts of molarity and

stoichiometry to determine the
amounts of reactants and products
involved in reactions in solution.

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 Example 9
 What volume of 0.500 M BaCl2 is required to
completely react with 4.32 g of Na2SO4?

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 Example 10
 What volume of 0.200 M NaOH will react with
50.0 mL of 0.200 M aluminum nitrate, Al(NO3)3?
What mass of Al(OH)3 will precipitate?

3NaOH + Al(NO3)3  3NaNO3 + Al(OH)3

 First we calculate the number of moles of Al(NO3)3

(remember to convert mL to L):

# moles(Al(N O3 )3 )
M (Al(NO3 )3 )   0.200 mol/L
0.0500 L

# moles(Al(N O3 )3 )  0.0100 mol

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Example 10 (continued)
 From the equation we see that each mole of
Al(NO3)3 reacts with 3 moles of NaOH.
Therefore, we multiply the number of moles of
Al(NO3)3 by 3 to find the number of moles of
NaOH required for the reaction:

# moles (NaOH) = 0.0300 mol

 Now we again use the formula for the molarity to

find the volume of the NaOH solution reacting:

0.0300 mol
0.200 mol/L 
V(solution )
V(solution) = 0.150 L = 150 mL
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 Example 10 (continued)
 Each mole of Al(NO3)3 produces 1 mole of Al(OH)3.
Since the reacting solution contains 0.0100 mole of
Al(NO3)3, 0.0100 mole of Al(OH)3 will be formed:

m(Al(OH)3) = #moles(Al(OH)3)  Mr(Al(OH)3)

m(Al(OH)3) = 0.0100 mol  78.00 g/mol = 0.780 g

0.0300 mol
0.200 mol/L 
V(solution )
V(solution) = 0.150 L = 150 mL
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 Example 11
 What is the molarity of a KOH solution if
38.7 mL of the KOH solution is required
to react with 43.2 mL of 0.223 M HCl?
KOH + HCl  KCl + H2O
 First we calculate the number of moles of HCl
in the solution (remember to convert mL to L):

# moles(HCl)
M (HCl)   0.223 mol/L
0.0432 L

# moles(HCl)  9.63  10 3 mol

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 Example 11 (continued)
KOH + HCl  KCl + H2O
 From the equation we see that each mole of HCl
reacts with 1 mole of KOH. Therefore, 9.63·10-3
mole of HCl will react with 9.63·10-3 mole of KOH.
 Now we can use the formula for the molarity:

# moles(KOH)
M (KOH) 
V(solution )
9.63·10-3 mol
M (KOH)   0.249 mol/L  0.249 M
0.0387 L
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 Example 12
 What is the molarity of a barium hydroxide
solution if 44.1 mL of 0.103 M HCl is required
to react with 38.3 mL of the Ba(OH)2 solution?

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 Metals and Nonmetals

 Stair step function on periodic table

separates metals from nonmetals.

 Metals are to the left of

the stair step
 Nonmetals are to the right
of the stair step

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Metals and Nonmetals
 Periodic trends in metallic character

More Metallic
More
Metallic
Periodic
Chart

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 Metals and Nonmetals

 Metals tend to form cations

 Li1+, Ca2+, Ni2+, Al3+

 Nonmetals tend to form anions

or oxoanions
 Cl1-, O2-, P3-
 ClO41-, NO31-, CO32-, SO42-, PO43-

 Important exceptions:
 H1+, NH41+

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 Aqueous Solutions

 Classification of solutes:
 Electrolytes – solutes whose aqueous
solutions conduct electricity
 Nonelectrolytes – solutes whose aqueous
solutions do not conduct electricity

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 Nonelectrolytes
 Exist in solution in form of
electroneutral molecules
 No species present which could
conduct electricity
 Some examples:
 H2O, C2H5OH, CH3COOH

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 Electrolytes
 Exist in solution as charged ions
(both positive and negative)
 Ions move in the electric field and
the solution conducts electricity

Electrolytes

Acids Bases Salts

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 Electrolytes
 Acids
 Form H cations in aqueous solution
+

 HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4

 Bases
 Form OH anions in aqueous solution
-

 NaOH, Ca(OH)2

 Salts:
 Form ions other than H or OH in
+ -

aqueous solution
 NaCl, MgBr2, Zn(NO3)2

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 Electrolytes
 Dissociation
 The process in which a solid ionic compound

separates into its ions in solution

H2O
NaCl(s)  Na+(aq) + Cl-(ag)
 Ionization
 The process in which a molecular compound

separates to form ions in solution

H2O
HCl(g)  H+(aq) + Cl-(ag)
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 Strong Electrolytes
 Strong electrolytes
 Dissociate completely in aqueous solution
 Good electric conductors in solution

 Examples:
 Strong acids (Table 4-5)
HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
 Strong bases (Table 4-7)
KOH, Ba(OH)2
 Soluble ionic salts (Solubility Chart)
KI, Pb(NO3)2, Na3PO4
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 Weak Electrolytes
 Weak electrolytes
 Dissociate partially in aqueous solution
 Poor electric conductors in solution

 Examples:
 Weak acids (Table 4-6)
HF, CH3COOH, H2CO3, H3PO4
 Weak bases
NH3, CH3NH2

 Dissociation of weak electrolytes is reversible

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 Reversible Reactions
 All weak acids and bases ionize reversibly
in aqueous solution
 This is why they ionize less than 100%

 CH3COOH – acetic acid

H2O
CH3COOH CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

 NH3 – ammonia

NH3 + H2O NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

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 How to Write Ionic Equations
1) Write the formula unit equation:
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI  PbI2 + 2KNO3
2) Show dissociation for every strong electrolyte
(total ionic equation):
[Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)] + [2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq)] 
 PbI2(s) + [2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)]

3) To obtain tne net ionic equation, get rid of

spectator ions:
Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq)  PbI2(s)

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 Ionic Equations: Examples

 Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu

 NaOH + CH3COOH  CH3COONa + H2O

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 Combination Reactions
 One or more substances react to form
one new substance (compound)
 Element + Element  Compound
2Na(s) + Br2(l)  2NaBr(s)
P4(s) + 10Cl2(g)  4PCl5(s)

 Compound + Element  Compound

C2H4(g) + Cl2(g)  C2H4Cl2(l)

 Compound + Compound  Compound

CaO(s) + CO2(g)  CaCO3(s)
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Decomposition Reactions
 A compound decomposes to produce
two or more substances
 Compound  Element + Element

heat
2HgO(s)  2Hg(l) + O2(g)
electrolysis
2H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g)

 Compound  Compound + Element

heat
2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

 Compound  Compound + Compound

heat
Mg(OH)2(s)  MgO(s) + H2O(g)
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 Displacement Reactions
 One element displaces another from a compound
 Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

 Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

 2K(s) + 2H2O(l)  2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

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 Metathesis Reactions

 Exchange of ions between two compounds

 General equation:
 AX + BY  AY + BX

 Need a driving force in order to proceed

 Such driving force should act to remove

ions from the solution

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 Metathesis Reactions
 Formation of a nonelectrolyte
 Acid-Base neutralization – most typical
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

 Formation of an insoluble compound

 Precipitation
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
 Gas evolution
CaCO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

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Reading Assignment
 Read Sections 4-1 through 4-3 and
4-8 through 4-11
 Get familiar with information
presented in Sections 4-5 and 4-6
 Take a look at Lecture 6 notes
(will be posted on the web 9/14)
 Read Sections 5-1 through 5-13

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Homework #2
 Required:
OWL Homework Problems
based on Chapters 3 & 4
due by 9/26/05, 9:00 p.m.
 Optional:
OWL Tutors and Exercises
Textbook problems
(see course website)

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