EMBRYOLOGY

• Embryology is the study of formation and

development of the embryo or fetus from the
moment of its inception upto the time when it
is born as infant.
• Human development begins at fertilization by
the fusion of highly specialized male and
female gametes which have haploid number
of chromosomes.
• FERTILIZATION:- The process of fusion of male
and female gametes is called fertilization.

• Fertilization results in the formation of a

diploid, totiopotent cell – the zygote.

• Highly regulated process of cell division ,

growth, migration and differentiation
transform the unicellular zygote into a
complex multicellular human being.
• GAMETOGENESIS :- is the process of
development of specialized gametes which
involves the special type of cell division – the
meiosis.
• The purpose of the gametogenesis is :-
• A)- to reduce the number of chromosomes
from diploid to haploid,
• B)- to alter the shape of germ cells to enable
them to fuse with each other at fertilization.
• Cells which give rise to gametes called as
primordial germ cells originate from epiblast
cells during second week of development.
• They migrate to extraembryonic yolk sac and
are present within the endoderm of yolk sac
wall near the caudal end of embryo.
• Between 4th and 6th weeks the primordial
germ cells migrate from the yolk sac along
mesentry of hindgut to reach the developing
gonads.
• Primordial germ cells differentiate into
oogonia in the ovary and spermatogonia in
the testis.
• The oogonia and spermatogonia divide
mitotically to give rise to primary oocytes and
primary spermatocytes which are cells having
diploid number of chromosomes.
• The primary oocyte and primary spermatocyte
undergo meiotic division to give rise to ovum
and sperm.
 CELL DIVISION

• Cell division involves two processes :-

a) – Karyokinesis :- division of the nucleus.
b) – Cytokinesis :- division of the cytoplasm.
Nuclear division can occur in three ways :-
a) – Amitoic division :- Random distribution of
nuclear material between daughter cells.
Occurs in pathological conditions.
b) - Mitosis :- Distribution of equal and identical
copies of parent cells genome between two
daughter cells.
c) – Meiosis : - reduction division , daughter cells
having haploid number of chromosomes.
 MITOSIS
• Mitosis is a type of cell division in which a
diploid cell gives rise to two genetically
identical diploid daughter cells, which also
receive equal amount of cytoplasm from
parent cell.
• Prior to the onset of mitosis, DNA replication
occurs doubling the amount of DNA and
yielding double stranded chromosomes.
• The mitosis is divided into four phases :
• A) Prophase :- condensation and shorting of
the chromosome occurs.
• Each double stranded chromosome is made
up of two chromatids joined at centromeres;
centrioles seprate and mitotic spindle is
formed.
• At the end of prophase nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear.
• B) Metaphase :- chromosomes arrange
themselves in the equatorial plane of the
spindle.
• Spindle fibers attach the centromere of each
chromosome to the centrioles located in the
opposite poles of the cell.
• C) Anaphase :- centromere divides and the
seperated daughter chromatids are pulled
towards each pole of the cell. Cleavage furrow
appears.
• Telophase :- The daughter chromatids reach
the poles of the cell. Nucleolus and nuclear
membrane form again.
• Cleavage furrow deepens, equal distribution
of cytoplasm occurs and genetically identical
two daughter cells are formed.
• Somatic cells undergo mitosis to produce
genetically identical progeny.
 MEIOSIS
• Meiosis is a special type of cell division
involving germ cells only.
• Meiosis involves two successive cell division -
- meiosis I , reduction division, heterotypical
division and
• - meiosis II, homotypical division which
resembles mitosis.
• MEIOSIS I :- The first meiotic division is a true
reduction division and divisible into four
phases similar to mitosis.
• Prophase I :- it is a complex long phase and is
subdivided into five substages.
• A)- Leptotene
• B)- Zygotene
• C)- Pachytene
• D)- Diplotene
• E)- Diakinesis
LEPTOTENE
• ZYGOTENE
• The process
of pairing is
called as
synapsis.
• Pachytene :-
two chromatids
one from each
Bivalent pair coiled
around each other
forming crossing
over.
 DIPLOTENE
Chiasmata form
• DIAKINESIS:- Chiasmata finally resolve,
chromosomes still as bivalents further
condense.
• Nuclear membrane disappear.
• Spindle apparatus forms.
• Meiosis II :- No DNA synthesis occurs prior to
mitosis.
• The essential difference between mitosis and
meiosis II is that the parent cell and the
resultant daughter cells possess haploid
number of chromosomes.
• Importance of meiosis
• A ) Reduction of chromosome number from
diploid to haploid providing a mechanism for
constancy of chromosome number from
generation to generation.
• B):- Random assortment of maternal and
paternal chromosomes between gametes.
• C):- Crossing over of the chromosomes permit
shuffling of genes and production of
recombination of genetic material.
Male Reproductive System
 SPERMATOGENESIS
• Spermatogenesis is entire sequence of events
by which spermatogonia are transformed into
mature sperms.
• Spermatogenesis begins at puberty
• There are 3 types of spermatogonia present –
dark type A, light type A , and type B.
• Dark type A spermatogonium is the stem cell
and divide mitotically to produce one dark
type A and one light type a cell.
• In this manner a continuous population of
dark type A stem cell is maintained.
• Light type A spermatogonium divides
mitotically into two type B spermatogonium
which in turn produces primary spermatocyte.
 Spermiogenesis is the series of morphological
changes occuring in spermatids resulting in the
formation of highly specialised, motile spermatozoa
 Female reproductive organ
• -primary organ is ovary
• Secondary organ are uterus, vagina, vulva and
vestibular gland
• Female genital track consist of fallopian tube
and vagina and this track provides the site of
fertilization and site for the development of
the embryo.
 Ovaries
• Paired 3cm.long and 2cm wide, 1 cm thick
• Situated in the lateral wall of lesser Pelvis
• Pelvis on either side of the uterus blow and behind the uterine tube
• Ovary consists of outer connective tissue layers
• Cortex covered by germinal layer
• Inner vascular – medulla
• Ovary contains- 5-6 millions oogonia at 5th month of intra uterine life.
• At birth reduced to about 2millions oocyte
• At pubety –about 40000 oocyte ,out of which only 400 oocyte librated
through out reproductive life (From puberty to menopause.
• Ovary remain inactive till puberty stroma contains mature follicles-during
child bearing age, one ovarian follicle mature and ruptures to release its
ovum into the paritoneal cavity
• This process is called ovulation and recurs (ovarian cycle) through out the
reproductive life of the female.
• Ovarian cycle stops – Temporarily during pregnancy
Uterus
OOGENESIS
• Is the process of maturation of oogonia in to mature oocycte.
• This maturation is begins before birth and completed after puberty and continues
to menopause.
Prenatal development
• During intrauterine life primordial germ cells migrate from their
extragonadal site of origin (yolk sac) to developing ovary and begin to
proliferate to form oogonia.
• By 8-10 weeks of IUL oogonia number about 600000
• By 12 weeks oogonia begin to differentiate in to primary oocyte which are
diploid.
• primary oocytes are surrounded by single layer of flattened cells forming
primordial follicle .
• By 5th month of IUL maxim no of primary oocytes are formed 7 million at
birth 1 million oocytes persists due degenartion of primary oocytes
• At puberty only 40,000 oocytes remain .
• No primary oocytes are formed after birth .
• Before birth all the primary oocytes enter into first meiotic division and
are arrested in diplotene stage of prophase .
• Oocyte maturation inhibitor secreted by follicular cells is responsible for
maintaining the primary oocyte in the dormant diplotene stage of first
meiotec division.
• Postnatal Maturation
• Beginning from puberty, 5 to 12 primordial follicles begin to mature with each
ovarian cycle, but only one follicle will fully mature to liberate the oocyte at the
time of ovulation.
• The folliculogenesis is regulated by pituitary gonadotropins, follicle stimulating,
hormone (GSH) and luteinizing hormone (L.H).
• The primary oocyte still in diplotene stage begins to increase in size; surrounding
follicular cells become cuboidal, proliferate to form a stratified epithelium of
granulosa cells. The oocyte is surrounded by an amorphous glycoprotein coat, the
zona pellucida. The follicle is known as primary follicle.
• As the follicle grows, a fluid filled cavity, the antrum appears in the follicle. The
primary oocyte is pushed to on end, surrounded by a clump of granulosa cells
known as cumulus oophorous. The rest of the granulosa cells forming the wall of
the antrum is known as stratum granulosum, Connective tissue cells of the ovary
surround the follicle forming theca interna which is externally surrounded by
librous theca externa. The follicle is known as the secondary follicle.
• Further growth of the follicle and increase in size of the antrum results in formation
of tertiary or graffian follicle. Oocyte at this point still has not resumed meiosis.
• Ovulation (Process of rupture of the graffian follicle and release of the oocyte) is
triggered by a surge of L.H. production. 12-24 hours after L.H. peak, ovulations
occurs.
• L.H. surge stimulates the primary oocyte to resume meiosis. Resumption of meiosis
by primary oocyte is regulated by a Maturation promoting factor.
• After completion of meiosis I, primary oocyte divides unequally to
give rise to a secondary oocyte (haploid cell) and first polar body.
First polar body is extruded into perivitelline space between zona
pellucida and vitelline membrane.
• The secondary oocyte promptly begins the second meiotic division
without DNA replication, but about 3 hours before ovulation, is
arrested at metaphase stage of second meiotic division..
• Ovulation occurs 14 days prior to the onset of next menstural
cycle. Ovulation occurs in the middle of the ovarian cycle.
• By rupture of the follicular wall, secondary oocyte surrounded by
follicular cells of cumulus oophorous forming corona radiata, is
liberated into the peritoneal cavity.
• Secondary oocyte enters the fallopian tube and can complete the
second meiotic division only at the time of fertilization. If
fertilization does not occur, secondary oocyte degenerates 24
hours after ovulation.
• After ovulation, the granulosa cells and theca interna cells
collapse, corpus luteum secretes progesterone and some estrogen.
• If fertilization occurs, under the influence of human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) secreted by syncytio-
trophoblast, corpus luteum enlarges to form corpus
luteum of pregnancy, which remains active thourghout
the first 20 weeks of gestation.
• If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum
degenerates 10 to 12 days after ovulation and it is
known as corpus luteum of menstruation. It is
subsequently transformed into a scar tissue, the
corpus albicans.
• The ovarian cycle, with a periodicity of about 28 days, is
the cyclical changes occurring in the ovary including the
maturation and growth of a follicle, ovulation,
formation and degeneration of corpus luteum. It begins
at puberty and persists throughout the reproductive life
of women except during pregnancy.
• Ogenesis is acompanied by development and
growth of the follicles
• Ovarian cycle-
• Is the cyclic release of ovum from ovary
• This cycle is controlled by GONODOTEROPHIC HORMONES
(F.S.H. & L.H) – Secreted by ant. Pit gland .
• This cycle divided into 3 phases.
( A ) Follicular stage or phase or preovulatory
Correspond to the first half of the menstrual cycle during
this phase follicles develop and discharge only one mature
oocyte
Changes in the endo metrium of the uterus take place due
to secretion of hormon estrogen produced by developing
follicles .
Ovaulation
(B) Development of Ovarian follicles and ovulation-

• Is the process of rupture of grafian follicle with the liberation of secondary oocyte
from ovary.
• It occurs approimately 14 days before the onset of next menstrual bleeding.
• It is due to increase secretion of L.H. from anterior pituitary .
• During ovaulation some women feel a slight, pain in the lower abdomen known as
middle pain or MITTELS MERZ.(Due to slight bleeding into the paritoneal cavity)
• Ovaulation is generally charcterized by rise in bassal body temprature.
• Some women fail to ovulate because of low concentration of gonadotropins.
• Ovaulation cab be induced by giving gonadotropins, clomiphene citrate :-
stimulates the release of pit. Gonadotropins (F.S.H. &L.H)
• Resulting maturation of several ovarian follicles and multiple ovaulation.
• So multiple pregnancy increases.
Ovulation- Is the a process shedding off an ovum from the ovary
• Stutructure of the secondary oocyte
• It is about 140 micron in diameter
(c)- Post Ovulatry or Luteal Phase or Stage – Conrrespond to the 2nd
half of manstrual cycle
Formation of copus luteum following ovulation
Changes in the uterine endo metrium take place due progesteron
• Last only 10-14 days if pregnancy does not occur
• It degenrates and transfomed into mass of fibrous tissue called cropus albicans.
• This corpus luteum is called copus luteum of menstruation
• Corpus luteum of pregnancy-
• The denereration of corpus luteum results in sudden withdrawal of progestrone from
circulating blood.
• The results in loss of integrity of uterine endometrium and initiates the menstrual
bleeding.
Corpus luteum of pregnancy-
• If ovum is fertilized corpus luteum persists for 3-4 months under the influence of HCG,
secreted by trophoblast of embedded blastocyst in the endo metrium.
• Progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum maintain the pregnancy for 3-4 months
and
• thereafter pregnancy is maintained by progesterone secreted by placenta .
• Fate of ovarian Follicles- In each ovarian cycle, number of ovarian follicles begin
to develop but only one reaches maturity.
• 1. Corpus luteum – After ruptures and sheds of a secondary oocyte, the wall of empty
follicle collapses to form cor lut.
• 2. Follicle that fail to reach maturity they degenerate.
• 3. Oocyte and granulosa cells of each follicle disappear
• Cells of theca interna proliferate to form interstitian gland (secrete estogen for some
period and then degenrate for form corpus abicans.
 • Menstrual cycle
• The uterine endometrium under goes monthly cycles changes during
reproductive life of a women endometrial cycle also reffered to as
menstrual cycle because of menstrution (flow a blood from the uterus) as
a important feature.
• Menstrual cycle of roughly 28 days
• Day one is the day when the menstrual flow stats
• The ovulation occurs in the middle of the cycle (14 days)
• Changes in the endometium occurs due to strogen and progesterone scereted by ovaries.
• Each menstrual cycle for phases .
The phases are - 1. Menstrual phase
• 2. Proliferative phase
• 3. Secretary phase
• 4. Premenstrual phase
Placenta
Constituents of Placental Membrane
• Cleavage- Repeated mitotic divisions of zygote into smaller units
• These celled blastomeres
• Division start after fertilization and continuous as the zygote passes
long the uterine tube
• During cleavage the zygote is surrounded by zona pellucida
• 16 cells embryo (mulberry fruit) called morula enters into the utreine
cavity
• The cells arranged into 2 groups -outer layer Trophoblast, inner cell
mass kown as embryoblast
• Blastocyst formation – When morula enters into the ut cavity the
endo meterial fluid (Uterine milk) inter cellular spaces of morula.
• Inter cellular spaces with each other and form single large cavity
known as blastocele and embryo called blastocyst.
• The fluid into blastocele rich in nutrients
• As the cavity enlarge the inner cells mass is attached to the tropho
blast at one pole – embryonic pole- gives rised to embryo and
trophoblast provide nutrients to embryo.
• Zona pellucida disappear
• Now the blastosyst ready for inplantation.
• Implantation of blastosyst- on 6-7 day after fertilization- completed 10-
12 day
• Is a process by which blastosyst embeded into uterine cavity near upper
part of the posterior wall of uterus near the fundus.
• Embryoblast and its fate- 8 DAY Embryoblast differntiates in to 2 layers
• At 1st the cells hypoblast lining inner aspect (towards the blastosyst cavity)
differentiates to form flattened or cuboidal cells known as hypoblast
• The remaining cells of embryoblast known as epiblast
• Thus bilaminar germ disc is formed with an extra celulalr basement
memberane between the hypoblast and epiblast.
• DECIDUA- THE Endometrium of the pregnant utreus is called as decidua-.
• The portion of decidua where the placenta is to be formed called decidua
basalis.
• The part of decidua that embryo from the uterine lumen is called decidua
capsularis and remaining part of the decidua lining the uterine cavaty
decidua parietalis.
• Amniotic cavity formation- 8 day of development small cavity appears
within the epiblast Which enlarges to form amniotic cavity- (Appearing
between epiblast below and trophoblast above) Thus the flow of the
anmiotic cavity is formed by epiblast and roof by flanted called
amnioblasts
• Primary yolk sec formation- 9 day flanttened cells arising from hypoblast
line the inside of the blastocyst cavity- this thin membrane is referred as
HEUSER’S MEMBRANE
• This blastosyst cavity known as primary yolk sec.
• Extra embryonic mesoderm formation- 11-12 DAY
• Extrambryonic celome formation
• 1- Somatopleuric lining inside trophoblast and outside the amniotic
• Splanchnopleuric ( Visceral ) lining outside the primary yolk sec
• Connecting Stalk- The unsplit extra embryonic measodum through which
embryo along with amniotic and yolk sec ia attached to the trophoblast is
called connecting stalk- forming umlikal called with the development of
blood vessels in it.
• Chorion
Formation of Notochord
Functions of Notochord - 1. It forms the central axis of the developing
embryo.
2. It induces the formation of neural tube from the overlying ectoderm.
3. It provides central column around which vertebral bodies and interverebral dises
develop.

• Fate of Notochord - 1. The notochord is present in all the

animals belonging to phylum chordata.
• 2. Remnants are seen in the form of nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral
dises and apical ligament of dens of second cervical vertebra.
Neural Crest
During th process of fusion of neural folds a few junctional
cells at the crest or summit of the neural folds separate and
give rise to a cluster of cells called neural crest on either side.
• Derivatives of Neural crest Cells
• Autonomic ganglia
• Adrenal medulla
• Schwann Cells
• Melanocytes
• Pia-arachnoid
• C cell of thyroid
• Laryngeal Cartilage
• Dermis of the head & neck
Subdivisions of Intraembryonic Medoderm
Lateral Plate Mesoderm
Intraembryonic Mesoderm
• Lect. By – Dr. Renu Mishra
• Prof. & Head
Extraembryonic Membranes and Twinning
• The extraembryonic fetal membranes are structures that develop from
zygote but do not form any part of the embryo proper.
• Extraembryonic membranes, amnion, yolk sac, allantois, chorion, placenta
and umbilical cord.
• Lect. By – Dr. Renu Mishra
Prof. & Head
Dep. of Anatomy
SIMS, Hapur
Pharyngeal Apparatus
Development of the Thyroid Gland
The Alimentary System
• Lect. By – Dr. Renu Mishra
Prof. & Head
Dep. of Anatomy
SIMS, Hapur
Development of the Thyroid Gland
TONGUE
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