Nervous SYSTEM

By
Animal Physiology Staff

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• Many animals have a complex nervous system that
consists of:
- A central nervous system (CNS) where
integration occurs, encompasses the brain and
brainstem
- A peripheral nervous system (PNS), which carries
information into and out of the CNS
 Sensory input

Sensor Integration

Motor output

Effector Peripheral nervous Central nervous

system (PNS) system (CNS)
FIGURE 12.2 (Hill et al.,
2012)
* Neurons have four
functional areas
corresponding to four
major structural regions

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Fig. 48-4

Dendrites
Stimulus

Nucleus Presynaptic
cell
Axon
hillock
Cell
body

Axon

Synapse
Synaptic terminals

Postsynaptic cell
Neurotransmitter
• Synapse is the connection between an axon with
another cell
• Synaptic terminals of one axon release information
across synapses in the form of a chemical messenger
called neurotransmitters
• The information transmitted a prasynaps cell (a
neuron) to a cell post-synapse (a neuron, muscle, or
gland cell)
• Most neurons are enriched or enveloped by a cell
called glia
 Neuron Membrane Potential

• Each neuron cell has a voltage difference (difference in

electrical charge) of a plasma membrane called
a membrane potential (-50 s.d. -100 mV)
• The membrane potential is due to differences in ionic
composition in intracellular and extracellular fluids
• Message sent as change membrane potential
 Resting Potential
• The resting potential is the membrane potential when not sending
an electrical signal (-70 mV)
• When the resting potential, the K + concentration is greater in the
cell, while the Na + concentration is greater outside the cell
• The Na + / K + pump uses ATP energy to maintain the gradient of
K + and Na + when it passes through the plasma membrane
• This concentration gradient is a chemical potential energy
• The opening of ion channels on the plasma membrane converts
the chemical potential to an electrical potential
• When the resting potential many open K + channels and few open
Na + channels; K + diffuses out of the cell
• Anions trapped inside the cell contribute to the negative charge in
neurons
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 Speed of Nerve Conduction

• AP speed increases with axon diameter

• In vertebrates, the axon is shrouded by a myelin
sheath, which causes the AP to increase in speed
• Myelin sheath is made by glia- oligodendrocytes on
CNS and Schwann cells in PNS
Fig. 48-12a

Node of Ranvier

Layers of myelin
Axon

Schwann
cell Schwann
cell
Nodes of Nucleus of
Axon Myelin sheath Ranvier Schwann cell
• AP is only formed in the nodes of Ranvier,
a gap on the myelin sheath where
depolarization occurs
• AP on a myelin-covered axon jumps
between nodes of Ranvier in a process
called saltatory conduction
Fig. 48-13

Schwann cell
Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)

Cell body
Myelin
sheath
Axon
 Evolution of the nervous system

• The nervous system evolves from a simple reflex arc

to a centralized brain. Simple reflex arc only
involves sensory neurons that also control the
effector cells. Most arc reflexes have two or more
neurons involved, and involve the interneuron.
Interneuron is what makes up the simplest form of
CNS.
• Sponges have no nerves, but can respond to stimuli
using electrical signals
• The neural network, the simplest nervous system
(Cnidaria) and found in most animals. In
vertebrates, forming a neural plexus is found on the
wall of intestine.
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Worm nervous system

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• More advanced nervous system with more complex
behavior is found in Medusae, a radial symmetry-
shaped animal that has a brain ring and a ganglion,
a collection of nerve cell bodies. But in this animal
does not have true CNS.
• True CNS is found in bilaterally symmetrical
animals. In such animals, longitudinal nerve rods
(CNS) that coordinate neural activity in
collaboration with civil servants.
• True CNS develops on the anterior edge of more
complex animals. The anterior position of the brain,
an adaptation of the tendency of bilateral
symmetrical animal heads to move toward the front.

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Insect’s nervous system

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Vertebrate Nervous System

Consists of two divisions namely afferent and efferent

Efferent nervous system has 2 or 3 components:
1. Autonomous nervous system threads, which conserve smooth
muscle, heart muscle, gland and non-motor organ.
In most vertebrates, the system is divided into the sympathetic
nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.
2. Somatic nervous system, consisting of motor neuron yarn
supply skeletal muscle
3. Enteric nervous system, extensive nerve tissue in the wall
channel digestion. The digestion activity is controlled by the
autonomic nervous system and enteric nervous system.

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Cont’ Table 5-2

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An autonomic nerve pathway consists of two neuron
chains.
Postganglionic parasympathetic fiber releases
acethylcholine, whereas sympathetic fibers release
norepinephrine.

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Types of receptors for autonomic
neurotransmitters
• Cholinergic nicotinic receptors. Found in postganglion
cell body in autonomic ganglion. Responding to Ach
released preganglionic fiber both sympathetic and
parasympathetic
• Cholinergic muscarinic reseptors. Found on effector
cell membranes such as smooth muscle, heart muscle &
gland. Binding the released Ach of the parasympathetic
fiber posganglion.
• Adrenergic reseptors. There are two main classes of
adrenergic receptors for norepinephrine and
epinephrine.

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CNS
• It consists of the brain and spinal cord, which receives
input from the internal / external circuits of the afferent
neuronal nerve
• Cells in CNS are mostly not cell neurons but glial cells or
neuroglia which are connective tissue and support
neurons
• Four types of glial cells, namely astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, ependumal cells and microglia support
the physical, metabolic and functional interneurons
• CNS tissue is protected by cranium, meninges,
cerebrospinal fluid and barrier blood-brain that limits the
incoming material of brain tissue

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• The brain depends on the delivery of oxygen and
glucose by the blood. The brain depends constantly
on the supply of oxygen and glucose from the blood.
• The brains of almost all vertebrates show plasticity.
When an area of the brain associated with a
particular activity is destroyed, other areas of the
brain can gradually replace the responsibility of the
damaged area
• Neurogenesis is a normal function of some brain
regions. There are two major sites of neurogenesis
in the adult brain, the hippocampus and the sub
ventricular
• Mammalian neural networks are susceptible to neo-
degenerative disorders. Examples: BSE disease
(Bovine Spongiform encephalopathy, mad cow
disease), and responsible agent is prion
(proteinaceous infectious particle)
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Spinal Cord
• Spinal cord retains the segment organizational
characteristics inherent in many nonvertebrates.
• White matter spinal cord is arranged into the tract.
• Each horn of the gray matter of the spinal cord contains a
different type of neuronal cell body.
Dorsal horn (interneuron cell body of afferent neurons),
Ventral horn (somatic efferent neuron cell body),
Lateral horn (the cell body of the efferent nerve thread
autonomous)
• The spinal nerve contains afferent and efferent fibers.
• Many reflex responses and pattern movements are in
vertebrates integrated in the spinal cord
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Brainstem
• Brainstem is an important link between the brain and the
spinal cord.
Brainstem function:
• Sensation of input and output motor in head and neck through
cranial nerves
• Reflex control of heart, blood vessels, respiration and
digestion
• Thermal sense modulation
• The muscle reflex setting involved in balance and posture
• Receive & integrate all input synapses via reticular formation

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Cerebellum

• Cerebellum important in balance and also in movement

coordination
• In birds and mammals there are 3 parts with different
functions:
1. Vestibulocerebellum, essential for maintenance of
balance & eye movement control
2. Cerebrocerebellum, play role in planning nonreflex
muscle activity
3. Spinocerebellum, enhances muscle tone & coordinates
skliled, nonreflex movements.

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 Basal Nuclei, Thalamus,
Hypothalamus, and Limbic System
The basal nuclei play an important inhibitory role in motor
control.
The role of the basal nuclei is important in :
1. muscle tone inhibition throughout the body (proper
muscle tone is usually maintained by a balance of
excitatory and inhibitory inputs to the neurons that supply
the skeletal muscles);
2. choosing and maintaining motor activity while suppressing
useless or unwanted movement patterns; and
3. help monitor and coordinate slow and sustainable
contractions, especially those related to posture and
support.
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Thalamus

The thalamus, functions as a "relay station"

and a synaptic integration center for the initial
processing of all sensory inputs on the way to
the cortex.

Thalamus is important in the animal's ability to

direct attention to attractive stimuli. For
example, mother mammals can sleep soundly
through the sound of wind or rain but soon
realize the whining of their children.

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Hipothalamus :
central integration for many important homeostatic functions
and serves as an important link between the autonomic and
endocrine nervous systems.
Function:
1. control body temperature;
2. control thirst and urine output;
3. control food intake;
4. control the secretion of the anterior pituitary hormone;
5. produce posterior pituitary hormone;
6. control uterine contractions and release of milk;
7. as the center of the main autonomic nervous system
coordination, which affects all
smooth muscle, heart muscle, and exocrine glands;
8. play a role in emotional and behavioral patterns; and
9. participate in a sleep-wake cycle. 36
The cortex plays a key role in the most sophisticated neural
functions, with three key regions:
(1) the motor cortex, which initiates nonreflex movements;
(2) five sensory cortexes, which deal with sensory
perception; and
(3) association cortexes, the sites of complex memory,
integration, and planning, as well as (in some species)
self-awareness, language, and personality traits.

It is the highest, most complex integrating area of the brain.

The forebrain also houses the limbic system, an ancient
memory and emotional complex consisting of parts of the
cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and diencephalon.

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