FIRE TECHNOLOGY

AND
ARSON INVESTIGATION
FIREMAN’S PRAYER
When I am called to duty, God
Whenever flame may rage
Give me strength to save some life
Whatever be its age.
Help me embrace a little child
Before it is too late
Or save an older person from
The horror of that fate.
Enable me to be alert
And hear the weakest shout
 And quickly and efficiently
To put the fire out.
I want to fill my calling and
To give the best in me,
To guard my every neighbor and
Protect his property.
And if according to my fate
I am to lose my life,
Please bless with your protecting hand
My children and my wife.
THE TETRAHEDRON OF FIRE
• Basically there are three elements of fire: fuel, heat, and
oxygen. The fourth element which is known as
Tetrahedron of fire is a transition of the triangular figure
into a four-sided solid geometric figure resembling a
pyramid and serves as the base representing the
chemical chain reaction.
• FUEL- refers to any material that can be oxidized or
a reducing agent which has a reference to a fuels ability
to reduce an oxidizing agent.
• OXYGEN- Oxidizing agent explains how some
materials can be burn in an oxygen-free atmosphere.
• HEAT/TEMPERATURE- Heat is a type of energy in disorder while temperature is a measure
of the degree of that disorder.

• CHEMICAL CHAIN REACTION- refers to the vapors of gases distilled during the process of
burning of materials carried into the flame. These vapors contain unchanged atoms and
molecules having electrical charge which attract or repel other particles.
• OXYGEN SOURCE
Approximately 16 percent of oxygen is required for combustion. Normal air contains 21
percent carbon dioxide. Some fuel materials contain sufficient oxygen within their make-up to
support burning.
• HEAT SOURCES
Some of the examples of the sources of heat are open flame- the sun, hot surfaces, sparks
and arcs, friction- chemical reaction, electrical energy, and compression of gases.
PHYSICAL STATE OF MATTER
• GASES- Examples under this state can be natural gas,
propane butane, hydrogen, acetylene, carbon
monoxide and etc.
• LIQUIDS-Under this are gasoline, kerosene,
turpentine, alcohol, cod liver oil, paints, varnish,
lacquer, olive oil, and etc.
• SOLIDS- Solids can be bulky, finely divided or in
dust form. Examples under this state are coal, wood,
paper, cloth, wax, grease, leather, plastic, sugar, grain,
hay, cork and others.
 NATURE OF FUEL PROPERTIES
• While the divisions of combustibles in three groups (solids,
liquids, and gases) give a rough idea of a hazard, a more
precise evaluation of potential hazard requires information
on the natural properties of the fuel, such as the melting or
boiling point, the volatility or vapor pressure, the heat of
combustion, the chemical instability or reactivity, and the
tendency towards auto-oxidation or spontaneous
combustion. For the fire protection engineer flash and fire
points are especially valuable in assessing the potential
hazard of flammable liquids. The most significant
characteristics are:
• Physical State. The normal physical states of matter are
gas, liquid or solid.
• Volatility. The volatility (the property to evaporate quickly)
of the liquid is important since all flaming fires are reactions
between the oxygen of the atmosphere and gaseous
products. The volatility is governed primarily by the boiling
point, although practically all combustible liquids produce
flammable vapors at temperatures well below the boiling
point. The boiling point is the temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric
pressure, or a state at which the liquid more or less rapidly
changes to the vapor state.
• Heat of Vaporization. The amount of heat which must be
put into a liquid in order to convert it to a gas is the heat of
vaporization. Expressed in British Thermal Unit (btu) per
pound & it is approximately 970, 367, 160, and 123 for
water, ethyl alcohol, pentane, and turpentine respectively,
at their boiling points.

• Melting Point & Heat of Fusion. For solids the melting

point and the heat of fusion is important since heat is
required to make the change from the solid to the liquid
state. This required heat is approximately 142 btu. Per
pound at 126 degrees farenheit for paraffin wax. (Note:
Many solids have appreciable vapor pressures below their
melting point, e.g. water in the form of ice and naphthalene
which has a flashpoint of 174 degrees farenheit and a
melting point of 177 degrees farenheit.
Heat Decomposition. Almost all solids of vegetable origin,
such as wood, paper, and cotton do not melt but first
decompose. Exceptions are vegetable fats, waxes, resins,
sugar, and natural rubber. The principal animal fibers such
as wool also melt. However most of this substances
undergo some chemical change or decomposition
(pyrolysis) which is a rather complex process, and usually
a char-like substances and gases are formed, some of the
latter being liquids at ordinary temperature. Substances of
vegetable and animal origin require an input of heat (heat
of decomposition) to bring the change about, but in some
cases, wood for example, heat may be given after a certain
stages of the decomposition & the figures for the heat of
decomposition are likely to be somewhat indefinite.
• While nearly all combustible materials decompose in an endothermic reaction (requiring heat to be
put on the material), there are few substances more or less which are unstable in character which
produce heat during decomposition. None of these substances occur naturally; they are all
chemically synthesized, one of the commonest examples in gas form is acetylene, which involves
heat on decomposition equivalent to approximately 3,750 btu. per pound or 26 btu. per cubic foot
(calcul;ated at normal pressure and temperature).
Specific Heat. This figure is the ratio as compared to the heat of water in btu. required to raise
the temperature of a pound of any substance by one degree farenheit. For majority of
combustible materials, the ratio is between one quarter and one half, but there are many
exceptions, especially the metals which have a lower specific heat. Another exception on a
higher side is ethyl alcohol.
• Heat Conductivity. This characteristic property has
influence on the fire hazard because the higher the
conductivity the more heat has to be applied to the
surface of solid fuel in order to raise it to the fire point and
at the same time make up for heat loss to the interior of
the fuel mass. This is particularly noticeable in heavy
sections of metal. Magnesium, for example, has a
conductivity of almost 4,000 times than that of the
firewood (across the grain).
• On the other hand, a high heat conductivity
facilitates the transfer of heat from an exposure or from a
combustion zone to a mixture unburned gas and air. Thus,
the rate of flame spread is accelerated. A notable example
is the gas hydrogen which when mixed with air has a high
rate of flame propagation. (Note: The conductivity of
hydrogen is almost six times that of air).
• Heat of Combustion. The available heat on complete
combustion is quite significant but usually is not the most
important factor in determining ignition susceptibility or fire
intensity, except when the material is very much diluted with
inert material such as structural insulating products
consisting of cement and excelsior, or alcohol well diluted
with water. A high proportion of inert diluents may reduce the
average heat of combustion to appoint where the fire hazard
is much reduced or even eliminated. Vegetables and mineral
oils as well as asphalt, pitch, fats, waxes, have heat of
complete combustion ranging from about 15,000 to 20,000
btu. per pound. The various specie of wood generally is in
the range of from 7,000 to 9,000 btu. per pound on a dry
basis
Auto-Oxidation or Spontaneous Heating. Almost all combustible
materials of vegetable origin will combine with oxygen at
temperatures well below those required for ignition. There are
many of animal and mineral origin which usually do so but
somewhat at higher temperatures. Even cotton will oxidized
very slowly at ordinary temperatures especially in the
presence of moisture. Many vegetable oils are particularly
prone to spontaneous heating from oxidation when spread
over a large surface area such as on textile fibers and when
there is a large mass of the oily fiber which provides sufficient
insulating effect to retain the heat of oxidation and thus,
permit temperature to rise. Green or uncured hay in bulk will
heat by the action of micro-organism to about 160 degrees
farenheit at which point the heating is continued by oxidation,
sometimes to ignition. Solid wood will also heat by oxidation at
temperature even below 500 degrees farenheit and in the
 PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
There are four (4) products of combustion as the materials burns and
undergo a chemical change:
• FIRE GASES- is the vaporized products of combustion. Some of the
factors which identify fire gases formed during burning (carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide) of combustible materials are: the chemical composition
of the fuel, amount of oxygen present for burning, and the temperature of
fire. When only part of carbon is oxidized, carbon monoxide (CO) is formed
instead of carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide came to be the main cause of
fire deaths due to its abundance. Carbon monoxide is so unstable and that
it has a combining power for oxygen-bearing substances to form carbon
dioxide. When carbon monoxide is heated to 1200 degrees in the presence
of oxygen, it will produce carbon dioxide.
• Hydrogen sulfide (HS) is a fire gas formed during fires involving
organic material containing sulfur such as hair, wool, meat, and hides.
Sulfur gases are highly toxic ignites at a temperature of 500 degrees
Fahrenheit.
• FLAME-It is the visible luminous body of burning gas which become hotter and become less luminous
when it is mixed with increased amounts of oxygen.
• HEAT-This is a form of energy which is measured in degrees of temperature to signify its intensity. Heat
is the product of combustion responsible for the spread of fire.
• SMOKE- This is a visible product of incomplete combustion. It is consists of a mixture of oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, finely divided particles of soot and carbon and other
products released from the materials involved.
 PHASES OF BURNING:
THERE ARE THREE (3) PROGRESSIVE PHASES OF
BURNING:
• . Incipient or Beginning Phase- Under this phase, the oxygen content in the air has not been
significantly reduced and the fire is producing water vapor, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
perhaps a small quantity of sulfur dioxide, and other gases. Some heat is being generated and
the amount will increase with the progress of the fire. The flame may be producing a flame
temperature well above 1000 degrees Fahrenheit, yet the temperature in the room at this stage
may be only slightly increased.
• . Free Burning Phase- The second phase includes all the
free burning activities of fire. During this phase, oxygen-rich
air is drawn into the flame as convection (the rise of the
heated gases) carries the heat to the uppermost portion of
the confinement area. The heated gas spread out laterally
from the top downward, forcing the cooler air to seek lower
levels and eventually igniting all the combustible materials in
the upper levels of the room. In this situation firefighter must
prevent breathing the superheated air as it can destroy their
respiratory tract. At this instance, the temperature can
exceed 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit at the upper portion of the
room. As the fire continues, it will consume the free oxygen
until it is not enough to react with the liberated fuel, then the
fire is reduced into the next stage.
• Smoldering Phase- The flame on this stage may stop to occur if the area do not have supply
of air. Burning under this point is reduced to glowing embers. The room is completely filled
with a dense smoke & fire gases that pressure force them to seep deep the cracks of the
building. The temperature will be as high as over 1000 degrees Fahrenheit. The heat
vaporized the lighter fuel such as hydrogen & methane, from the materials consumed by fire
in the room and therefore, increases the hazard.
• FLASHOVER-This is the final stage of the process of the fire
growth, wherein all the combustible materials within a
compartment are all ignited. The cause of the flashover is
due to the excessive build up of heat from the fire itself and
once all the contents of the fire area are heated gradually
into its ignition temperature simultaneous ignition occurs and
the entire area becomes fully involved with fire.
• FLAME SPREAD- It is the rate at which flame travels over
the surface. Interior building materials & finishes have a
flame spread rating that indicates the rate at which flame will
spread over the surface of the material. The lowest rating is
zero while a higher number indicates a faster rate of travel on
the material.
 FIRE EXTIGUISHING METHODS
THERE ARE FOUR METHODS OF FIRE
SUPPRESSION:
• . Removal of Fuel- This method is effective but not applicable at
all times. Fuel removal includes turning off the fuel supply,
pumping flammable liquids from a burning tank, removing
unburned portion of a pile of combustible materials (silos or coal
piles), or diluting a burning liquid material (ethyl alcohol) when
diluted with is soluble in water. In the case of flammable liquids
which are not soluble with water can be treated with “emulsifying
agent” that will cover the top layer of the flammable liquid to stop
vaporization. Foam & other surface-active agents contain
flammable vapors so that removal of fuel is also applicable while
flammable gases can be diluted with inert gas (carbon dioxide or
nitrogen) to make it non-combustible.
• Exclusion of Oxygen- This involves separation of oxygen
from other materials that creates a fire by the process of
“smothering” or “blanketing”. One of the common example of
this method is extinguishing a grease during prying by
placing a cover on a pan. But it should be take note there are
some plastics (cellulose nitrate) and combustible metals
(titanium) that cannot be extinguished by exclusion of oxygen
because this substances do not depend on external air
supply to burn so that special method of control is required.
• 3. Reduction of Temperature- Temperature control (
“cooling off “ or “ quenching ”) involves the absorption of heat
with a resultant cooling of the fuel to a point at which it
ceases to release enough vapors to maintain a flammable
vapor.
• 4. Inhibition of Chain Reaction-This method is applicable during
combustion process, on which scientist have found that the
simultaneous formation & consumption of certain atoms are the
key to the chain reaction which produces the flame. Some
chemical substances, when introduced into the fire in proper
amounts, breaks up this reaction and inhibits the atoms and the
fire cannot continue to burn and therefore, it is extinguished.
Examples of these chemicals are:
• a) Halon 1301 e) Potassium bicarbonate
(purple K)
• b) Halon 1211 f) Potassium carbonate
(Monnex)
• c) Halon 2404 g) Potassium chloride (Super
K)
• d) Sodium bicarbonate (regular dry chemical)
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE & THEIR
EXTINGUISHING METHODS
• 1. Class “A” Fires – Fires involving ordinary combustible
materials, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many
plastics.
• Class “A” Fire Extinguishment:
• Water is used in a cooling or quenching effect to reduce
the temperature of the burning material below its ignition
temperature.
• 2. Class “B” Fires – Fires involving flammable liquids,
greases, and gases.
• Class “B” Fire Extinguishment:
• The smothering or blanketing effect of oxygen
exclusion is most effective. Other extinguishing methods
include removal of fuel and temperature reduction.
• 3. Class “C” Fires – Fires involving energized electrical equipment.
Class “C” Extinguishment:
This fire can sometimes be controlled by a non-conducting
extinguishing agent. The safest procedure is always attempt to de-
energized high voltage circuits and treats as Class A or Class B fire
depending upon the fuel involved.
• 4. Class “D” Fires – Fires involving combustible metals, such as
magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium.
Class “D” Fire Extinguishment:
The extremely high temperature of some burning metals makes
water & other common extinguishing agents ineffective. There is no
agent available that would effectively control fires in all combustible
metals. Special extinguishing agents are available for control of fire in
each of the metals & are marked specially for that metal.
• Class “K” Fires – fires involving kitchen materials. This classification was added during the 1998
NFPA portable extinguishers standard exhibition.
• CLASSES OF FIRE BASED ON CAUSE
• Natural
• Accidental
• Intentional
 METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat can travel throughout a burning building by one or more of the four (4) methods. The
existence of heat within a substance is caused by a molecular action. Thus as the vibration of the
molecules becomes more intense, & sense heat is a disordered energy, it never remains constant
but continually transferred from objects of higher temperature to those of lower temperature. The
colder of the two bodies in contact will absorb heat until both objects are of similar temperature.
• 1. Conduction – Heat may be conducted from one body to
another by direct contact of the bodies or by an intervening heat-
conduction medium. The amount of heat that will e transferred and
its rate of travel by this method depends upon conductivity of the
material through which the heat is passing. Not all materials have
the same heat conductivity. Aluminum, copper and iron are good
conductors. Fibrous materials such as felt, cloth and paper are
poor conduction.

• Liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat because of the

free movement of their molecules. Air is very poor conductors of
heat because of the free movement of their molecules. Air is a very
poor conductor. Certain solid materials when shredded into fibers
and packed into batts, makes good insulation because the material
itself is a poor conductor and there are air pockets within the
batting. Double building walls which contain an air space provide
additional insulation.
• 2. Radiation – This method of heat transmission is known as the radiation of heat waves. Heat & light
waves are similar in nature but they differ in length. Heat waves are longer than light waves and they are
sometimes called infra-red rays. Radiated heat travel through space until it reaches an opaque object. As
the object is exposed to heat radiation it will in return radiate heat from its surface. Radiated heat is one
of the major sources of fire spread and its importance demands for an immediate defensive attack at
points where radiation exposure is severe.
• 3. Convection – is the transfer of heat by the movement of
air or liquid. This movement is different from the molecular
motion discussed in conduction. When liquid gases are
heated, they begin to move in themselves. For example,
when water is heated in a glass container, an upward
movement within the vessel can be observed through the
glass.
• The spread of fire by convection has more influence
upon the positions for fire attack and ventilation that either of
the previously discussed methods of heat propagation.
Heated air in the building will expand and rise. For this
reason, fire spread by convection is mostly in an upward
direction although air currents can carry heat in any
direction. Convected heat currents are generally the cause
of heat movement.
4. Direct Flame Contact – Fire also spreads along and through the material that will burn by direct flame
contact. When substance is heated to a point where flammable vapors are given off, these vapors may
be ignited. Any other flammable material which is in contact with the burning vapors may be heated to a
temperature where it will ignite and burn.
 PORTABLE EXTINGUISHERS
• Portable extinguishers are classified according to their intended use on
the four classes of fires (A,B, C, & D). All extinguishers display a rating
which indicates the appropriate extinguisher to use on a certain class of
fire.
• The Rating System is based on the physical test conducted and are
designed to determine the extinguishing potential for each size and type
of extinguisher.
• This rating may consists of a letter, numeral and letter, or a
combination thereof and they appear on labels affixed to the
extinguisher. The letter refers to the class of fire on which the use of
particular extinguishing agent is most effective. The numeral used in
conjunction with class “A” and Class “B” extinguishers, indicates the
relative effectiveness of the extinguisher. Multiple letters or numeral –
letter ratings are used on extinguishers which are effective on more than
one class of fire.
• Class “A” Ratings. 1-A, 2-A, 3-A, 4-A, 6-A, 10-A, and 40-A. The numeral
indicates the relative fire extinguishing potential of various sizes of the
different types of extinguishers suitable for use on Class “A” fires.
• Class “B” Ratings. 1-B, 2-B, 5-B, 10-B, 20-B, 30-B, 40-B and ranging up
to 640-B. The numeral serves two purposes: (1) It indicates the relative fire
extinguishing potential of various sizes of the different types of
extinguishers suitable for Class “B’ fires; (2) It is an approximate indication
of the square foot area of deep-layer flammable liquid fire which an
average operator can extinguish.
• Class “C” Ratings. No numeral is used since Class “C” fires are
essentially either Class “A” or Class “B” fires involving energized electrical
wiring and equipment. The size of the different suitable extinguishers
installed should commensurate with the size and extent of the area
involving the electrical hazard or area containing equipment being
protected.
• Class “D” Ratings. No numeral is used since there are so many metals
which would each require extra different ratings.
• Multiple Markings. Extinguishers suitable for more than
one fire should be identified by multiples of symbols. If a
new extinguisher is not properly marked the supplier
should be requested to supply the proper decals.
• Use of Portable Extinguishers. Portable extinguishers
of all types are not intended as substitute for sprinkler
systems, hose streams and other fire fighting devices.
They are necessary even though the property is equipped
with an automatic fire protection. Portable extinguishers
have a limited supply of extinguishing agent, discharge
range and time is limited, therefore it must be checked
regularly.
 TYPES OF EXTINGUISHERS
• Water Types Extinguishers (Pump Tanks). This types contains
one and one half to five gallons of water and applicable to Class “A”
fires. It is hand pump operated.
• Stored Pressure Water Extinguishers. It contains two and one half
(21/2) gallons of water and is applicable to Class “A” fires. It has an
average air pressure of 100 PSI., stored with the water on the
chamber.

• Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers. This type is prepared on the

following sizes 2, 21/2, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 18, and 20 pounds and is
applicable to Class “B” & Class “C” fires. A carbon dioxide gas is
stored under pressure and expelled by operating valves. The
discharge expels a cloud of carbon dioxide gas with some snow
through the nozzle horn.
• Halon Extinguishers. These are wheeled extinguishers
with sizes such as 1 gallon and up to 10 gallons. It is
applicable to Class “B” & “C” fires, consists a liquid that
will readily vaporize to a gas which will inhibit the chain
reaction of the combustion process.
• Ordinary Base Dry Chemical Extinguishers. These
types are prepared in 21/2 and up to 30 pounds sizes,
which is applicable to Class “B” and “C” fires. Its
contained alkaline base chemical is expelled either by
gas cartridge or stored pressure on the same container
which is operated by a nozzle shut-off valve.
 TYPES OF POISONOUS GASES
• Hydrogen Sulfide- (H2S)- a fire gas formed during fires
involving organic material containing sulfur, such as: rubber,
hair, wood, meat, and hides. It is colorless highly toxic gas
with a strong odor of rotten egg. Exposure for even a short
time is dangerous. It will ignite at 500 degrees farenheit (260
degrees Celsius).
• Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) – a toxic fire gas found in oxygen
starve fires involving nitrogen-containing materials such as
wool, silk, urethane, polyamides and acrylics. This gas is
also used as fumigant which can pose serious danger to
firefighters working in recently fumigated buildings.
Hydrogen cyanide smells like bitter almonds which may not
be easily detected.
Hydrogen Chloride - a gas which can be fatal after only a few breaths is produced in fires
involving chloride-containing plastics. Plastics can be found anywhere, like furnishings,
electrical insulation, conduit and piping.
 FIREFIGHTING
EQUIPMENTS/APPLIANCES
• FIRE LADDERS
• Straight ladder – is nonadjustable in length & consist of only one
section. This is sometimes called wall ladder, used for quick access
to windows and rooftop one 7 two storey buildings. This type is
used in length of 12, 14, 16, 18, and 24 feet.
• Extension ladder – is adjustable in length, consisting two sections
which travel in guide or brackets to permit length adjustment. This is
type provides access to windows and roofs within the limit of their
extendable lengths. It is 24 to 65 feet in length. A baby Extension
(Baby Bangor) is a 12 foot extension ladder without a halyard for
raising the fly section.
• Straight Hook ladder
• Bangor ladder
• Combination ladder – is adjustable in length and has a
suitable means for unlocking the sections so that the two
separate sections can form equal angles with the floor or
ground as a stepladder.
• Wall-Pompier ladder – consists of a large goose-neck hook
at the tip, with a single beam through which the rungs
projects. It may be used to reach upper stories of tall
buildings, beyond the reach of ground or aerial ladders.
• Aerial ladder – is a mechanical unit generally operated by
hydraulic power is mounted upon a specially built chassis.
The source of power is usually derived from the apparatus
engine which actuates a hydraulic hoist. It is constructed of
metal & are trussed to provide adequate strength. It ranges
from 65 – 100 feet.
Tower ladder – apparatus combines some features of both aerial ladder equipment and
elevating platforms. A telescopic boom has a ladder mounted on it, but the top
working area is a partially enclosed platform. Various ground ladders are also carried.
 GLOSSARY OF LADDER TERMS:
• 1. Beam -the solid or trussed main structural side member of a
ladder, supporting the rungs.
• 2. Bed Ladder/Bed Section – The lower section of an extension
ladder into which the upper section retracts.
• 3. Butt – the bottom or base end of a ladder.
• 4. Butt plates/Cleats/Spikes/Spurs/Shoes-The steel spikes
mounted on the butts to provide a more secure base for the
ladder on hard surfaces such as concrete. They also serve as a
protection against excessive wear on the ends of ladders.
• 5. Combination Ladder- A versatile ladder that can serve as a
straight ladder or be converted to an “A” type ladder: i.e. Metal
Dou Safety “A” Ladder and Little Giant Ladders.
• 6. Extension Ladder- A ladder with two sections that can be
nested for ease of handling and extended for the needed height.
• 7. Fly Ladder/Fly Section – The extendible top section of an
extension ladder.
• 8. Folding Ladder – A ladder designed for use in inaccessible
areas where ordinary ladders will not fit: the rungs fold
completely into the beams when fully closed.
• 9. Guides/Channels – Light wood strips or metal channels
which guide the fly ladder while it is being raised.
• 10. Gusset Plate – A flat metal plate used in truss constructed
ladders, which connects the rails of the beam and supports the
rungs.
• 11. Halyard – A rope used to elevate the fly section of an
extension ladder.
• 12. Hook Ladder/roof ladder – A ladder equipped with folding
hooks at the top.
• 13. Ladder Locks – A locking mechanism that secures an extension
ladder in the desired extended position by engaging the beams of the
fly ladder to the rungs of the bed of the ladder. It is also called dogs or
pawl.
• 14. Latching Device – A device used on combination ladders to lock
the ladder in position. This is consisting of hinges and pins.
• 15. Pulley – A grooved wheel attached to the bed ladder of an
extension ladder through which the halyard is drawn.
• 16. Rails – The two lengthwise members of a trussed ladder beam
which are connected by the gusset plates.
• 17. Rungs – The cross members between the beam of the ladders,
used as footrest in climbing.
• 18. Safety shoe – A swivel type butt plate consisting of rubber tread
and a spike. It may be used with either the rubber or the spiked end on
the ground.
• 19. Solid beam Ladder – A ladder with beams of solid construction (see trussed ladder).
• 20. Stops – A limiting device on extension ladders to prevent fly ladder from over extending
out of the bed of the ladder.
• 21. Straight Ladder – A ladder with only one section.
• 22. Tip or Top – The upper end of a ladder.
• 23. Trussed Ladder – A ladder with beams of open construction consisting of rails and
gusset plates.
SIZES AND TYPES OF PORTABLE
LADDERS IN USE
 LADDER TYPE CLOSED LENGHT WEIGHT
Extension Ladders
35’ 20’ 135 lbs.
25’ 15’ 100 lbs.
24’ 14’ 80 lbs.
16’ 10’ 70 lbs.
Straight Ladders
20’ 55 lbs
20’ (Hook) 60 lbs.
12’ (Hook) 35 lbs.
.
Special Ladders
14’ “A” Frame 7 35 lbs.
10’ “A” Frame 6 22 lbs.
19’ Little Giant 5’7” 40 lbs.
15’ Little Giant 4’7” 36 lbs.
11’ Little Giant 3’7” 32 lbs.
10’ Folding 11’ 16 lbs.
TYPES OF CARRY OF LADDER
• One Man Carry
• Two-Man Carry
• Four Man Carry
• Six Man Carry
1. Inspect and test all ladders prior to placing in
service.
2. Perform a visual inspection before and after ladder
usage.
3. All department ground ladders must be service
tested in accordance with NFPA
FIREHOSE, HOSE APPLIANCES AND
OTHER TOOLS USED IN
STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING
 FIREHOSE

• This term identifies a type of flexible tube used by firefighters to carry water under
pressure from the source of supply to a point where it is discharged to extinguish fire.
Fire hose is the most used item in the fire service and the way it is used requires it to
be flexible, water tight, have a smooth lining and durable covering.
THREE (3) SPECIFIC BASIC
CONSTRUCTIONS OF FIRE HOSE
• Braided
• Wrapped
• Woven

• Some of the major fibers used in the construction of the outer jacket of the fire hose
are cotton, nylon, rayon, vinyl and polyester fibers.
LISTINGS OF THE MOST COMMONLY
USED SIZES OF FIRE HOSE
• The ¾ or 1 inch rubber-covered, rubber-lined hose with 1 inch couplings- commonly
called Booster or Chemical Hose

• The 1 inch woven-jacketed runner-lined hose, equipped with 1 inch couplings sometimes
used on Booster Pumps.The 1-1/8 inch woven jacket rubber lined single jacket hose
with 1-1/8 inch couplings-commonly called Forestry Hose.
• The 1-1/2 inch woven jacketed rubber-lined hose, single or double jacket equipped
with 1-1/2 inch couplings.

• The 2 inch woven jacketed rubber-lined hose, single or double jacket, equipped with
2-1/2 inch couplings.

• The 2-1/2 inch woven jacketed rubber-lined hose, single, double or triple jacket,
equipped with 2-1/2 inch coupling.
• The 3 inch woven jacketed rubber lined hose, single, double, or triple jacket equipped with 2 -½
inch reducing couplings or 3 inches couplings.

• The 3-1/2 inch woven jacketed rubber-lined hose single, double or triple jacket, equipped with 2-
1/2 inch or 3 inch reducing couplings, or 3-1/2 inch couplings.

• The 4-, 5-, and 6- inch woven jacketed rubber lined Intake or Supply Hose.

• The 2-1/2-, 3-, 4-, 4-1/2, 5-, 6-inch- Non-Collapsible Intake Hose.
 CARE OF FIRE HOSE
• Recommended Practices that would Prevent Mechanical Injury to Fire Hose
The most common mechanical injury when fire hose is used is worn places, rips,
abrasions, crushed or damaged couplings and cracked interlinings.

In order to prevent, the following good practices are recommended:

• Avoid laying hose over rough, sharp corners;
• Provide warning lights and use hose bridges in traffic lanes;
• prevent vehicles from running over fire hose;
• Avoid closing the hose abruptly to prevent a water hammer;
• Avoid dropping couplings and excessive dragging;
• Change position of bends in hose when reloading.
• Prevention of damage against Heat:

• The exposure of hose to excessive heat or its contact with fire will char, melt, or weaken the
fabric and dry the rubber lining. A similar drying effect may occur to interlinings when hose is
hung in a drying tower for a long period of time in high temperatures. In order to prevent these
damage firefighters should conform to the following recommended practices:
• Protect hose from excessive heat or fire when possible;
• Do not allow the hose to remain in any heated area after it is dry;
• Use moderate temperature for drying. A current of warm air is much better than hot air;
• Keep the outside woven jacket of the hose dry;
• Hose hat has not been used for sometime should have water run through it to prolong its life; It is not
a good practice to dry the fire hose on hot pavement.
 PREVENTION OF HOSE DAMAGE
AGAINST MILDEW AND MOLD:
• Some methods of preventing mildew and mold are as follows:
• Remove all wet hose from the apparatus after a fire and replace
it with dry hose
• If hose has not been removed from the apparatus during a
period of 30 days, it should be removed, inspected, swept, and
reloaded.
• Some fire hose has been chemically treated to resist mildew and
mold but such treatment is not always 100 percent effective.
Regardless of this hose must be exercised every thirty days, and
water run through it every 90 days to prevent drying and
cracking of the rubber lining.
 PREVENTION AGAINST CHEMICAL CONTACTS
• Thoroughly scrub and brush all traces of acid contacts with
a solution of bicarbonate of soda and water. The soda will
neutralize the acid.
• Guard against spilling gasoline on hose when filling the fuel
tanks;
• Remove the hose from apparatus periodically, wash it with
plain water and dry thoroughly;
• if the least suspicion of injury exists, the hose should be
properly tested;
• Avoid laying hose in the gutter or where automobiles have
parked next to the curb, because parked cars drip oil from
the mechanical components an acid from the battery.
• Run off water from the fire may also carry various foreign
materials that can damage fire hose.
 KINDS OF PRESSURE
• Pressure is defined as a force or energy that may be
measured in pounds per square inch (PSI).
• Velocity refers to the speed of travel.
• Static Pressure - is the stored potential energy that is
available to force water through pipe, fittings, fire hose and
adapters.
• Normal Operating Pressure – is that pressure which is
found on a water distribution system during normal
consumption demands.
• Residual Pressure- is that part of the total available pressure
that is not used to overcome friction or gravity while forcing
water through pipe, fittings, fire hose, and adapters.
• Flow Pressure – is that forward velocity pressure at a discharge opening while water is
flowing.
• Pressure or Friction Loss – is that part of total pressure that is used to overcome friction
while forcing water through pipe, fittings, fire hose and adapters. (The difference in pressure
on a hose line between a nozzle and a pumper is an example of friction loss).
• b) Hose Tools
• 1. Universal thread adapter
• 2. Hose Jacket is a tool that is used to seal small cuts or breaks which may occur in fire hose
or to connect mismated or damaged couplings of the same size.
• 3. Hose Clamp – is a tool that is used to shut off water in hose lines when other control
valves are not applicable. It is also used to replace a burst section of hose, to extend lines, or
to hold water back for line advancement without shutting off the source of supply.
• 6. Hose Strap
• 7. Rope
• 8. Hose Bridge or Ramps – is a fire fighting equipment which is utilized to prevent damage to hose
whenever traffic must cross the hose.
• 9. Chafing Blocks – this prevents damage to hose near the water pump caused by vibration.
• 10. Rubber Mallet
TYPES OF OCCUPANCY
• RESIDENTIAL
• EDUCATIONAL
• HEALTH CARE
• BUSINESS & MERCANTILE
• INDUSTRIAL
• ASSEMBLY
• STORAGE
• ACCESSORY
VENTILATION
• – is the planned and systematic release and removal of heated air, smoke, and toxic
gases from a confined area and the replacement of these products of combustion with a
supply of fresh cooler air.
•
OBJECTIVES OF VENTILATION
• The major objectives of fire fighting force are to reach the scene of the fire as quickly as
possible, rescue trapped victims, locate fire, and apply suitable extinguishing agents with
a minimum of fire, water, smoke, and heat damage. Ventilation during fire fighting is
definitely an aid to the fulfillment to these objectives. Needed respiratory protection for all
hazards must be taken into consideration by the firefighters.
ADVANTAGES OF VENTILATION
• Aids life saving and rescue;
• Speeds fire attack & extinguishment;
• Reduces the danger of back draft or smoke explosion;
• Reduces mushrooming;
• Makes firefighting easier;
• Reduces fire & water damage;
• Reduces smoke and heat damage;
• Permits prompt salvage operations;
• Helps provide confinement.
 WHERE TO VENTILATE:
• The availability of natural openings such as skylights, ventilator shaft, monitors and hatchets;
• Loction of the fire and the direction which the chief officer wishes it to be drawn;
• Type of construction;
• Wind direction;
• The extent of progress of the fire and the condition of the building and its contents.
• VERTICAL VENTILATION
Coordinate with ground and attack companies; PROCEDURE
• Observe the wind direction with relation to exposures;
• Note the existence of obstructions or weight on the roof;
• Secure a life line to the roof as a secondary means of escape;
• Utilize natural roof openings whenever possible;
• Cut a large hole if one is required, rather than several small ones;
• Exercise care in making the opening so that main structural supports are not cut;
• Work with the wind at the back or side to provide protection to the operators while cutting the
roof opening;
• Extend a blunt object through the opening to break out the ceiling.
 HORIZONTAL VENTILATION
• Structures which lend themselves to the application of horizontal ventilation include:
• Residential type buildings in which the fire has not involved the a the area;
• Building with windows high up the wall near the eaves;
• The attics of residential type buildings which have louver vents in the walls;
• Buildings with large unsupported open spaces under the roof in which the structure has been
weakened by the effects of burning;
FORCED VENTILATION
• – is considered as a ventilation accomplished by the natural flow of air currents, the
currents created by fire, and the effect of fog streams. This can be as well accomplished
by the use of bowers, fans, or fog streams.
 SALVAGE AND OVERHAUL
• Salvage work – consists of those methods and operating procedures allied to the fire fighting
which aid in reducing fire, water and smoke damage during & after fires.
• Overhaul Operations – consists of the search for & extinguishment of hidden or remaining fires;
placing the building, its contents, and the fire area in a safe condition, determining the cause of the
fire; and recognizing and preserving any evidence of arson.
SMOKE AND VAPOR:
• Steam and smoke – indicate humid substances
come-in-contact with combustible substance.
(The water present in a humid substance
evaporates before the substance begins to
burn).
• White Smoke – may indicate the presence of
phosphorus, the non-metallic element of the
nitrogen group.
• Grayish Smoke – may be caused by flying ash
or soot of loosely packed substances, such as
straw or hay.
Black Smoke – may be produced by in-complete
combustion or the preponderance/superiority of
weigh in the burning material of a product with
petroleum base, such as rubber, tar, coal,
turpentine, or petroleum.
Reddish-brown or Yellow Smoke – may indicate
the presence of nitrates or substances with
nitrocellulose base. (it may be observed in
burning nitric acid, nitrates plastics, film, or
smokeless gun powder).
• Color of the Flame – The flame-color may indicate the intensity of the fire and also the
nature of the combustible substance. (The temperature of the flame varies from (500) to,
(1,500)°C and the color ranges from red, yellow and finally a blinding white. (Alcohol has
blue flame and red flame indicating the presence of petroleum products).
• Size of the Fire – the size of the fire can be appreciated at the time of arrival and
subsequently thereafter. Un-usual extension indicates use of accelerants. Knowledge of
the type of construction, the ventilation facilities and the normal contents of the building
will enable a professional observer to form an opinion as to whether the fire has traveled
abnormally fast.
• Direction of Travel – the flame tends to rise until meeting – an obstacle, wherein it projects
horizontally to seek other vertical outlet. The extent and rate of travel in the horizontal
direction will depend primarily on the travel in the horizontal direction will depend primarily on
the direction of the wind and ventilation, such as, - the presence of doors and windows. (The
spread of the fire in an-usual condition indicates the presence of accelerants).
• Location of Flame – investigator must note the location and number of points of origin. (Un-
related fire in different places is – indicative of arson).
• Odors – accelerants have characteristics smell. The smell of highly inflammable substance
in an area where it is not normally used should suspicion. (Turpentine, alcohol, kerosene,
and – gasoline emit characteristics odors).
 EXAMINATIONS DURING THE FIRE:
• Interior Openings – the investigator should note the condition
of the windows, doors, or other openings.
• Locked outside doors and obstructed entrances may
indicate an intent to impede the firemen in their efforts –
to extinguish the fire.
• Open windows and interior passage-way doors may
suggest arrangement for ventilating the fire promoting its
– rapid progress.
• Covered windows indicate an effort on the part of the
Arsonist to conceal his preparation and work.
 • Preliminary Examination of the Scene – a preliminary
search must be made on the surroundings, and
attention must be focused on – two-types of evidences,
namely:
• Equipment that may have been used by the
Arsonist such as container, match, and tools.
• Traces which may lead to the perpetrator’s identity,
such as shoe or type impressions, and others.
• Photography – progressive stage of burning must be
photographed from various angle .
• (Photograph of the spectators may be necessary – for the possibility of pyromaniacs).
 • Observation of the Spectators – pyromaniac
Arsonist usually remains at the scene, to watch the
fire. Exceptional satisfaction – or excitement may
indicate a pyromaniac in the crowd.
• (If the fire takes place during normal sleeping hours, the Arsonist may be sometimes
distinguishable by being one of the few clothed persons among the spectators.
•
INVESTIGATION OF SCENE AFTER THE FIRE

• Safeguarding the scene.

• Order of searching.
• Locating the point of origin.
• Examine the point of origin.
• Traces of accelerants.
• Altered protective devices.
THE PHYSICAL EVIDENCE COLLECTION
• Containers
• Ashes and debris
• Fingerprints and impressions
• Incendiary devices.
• Stoves and fire places
• Tools
• Documents
WITNESSES

• Persons arriving at the scene

• Fireman/firemen
• Watchman/watchmen
• Occupants
• Owner
 PHOTOGRAPHY AND SKETHCING: PACKING AND
FORWARDING OF EVIDENCES

• DATE and TIME of burning.

• A brief description of the type and construction of the burned building or object, - and the extent
of the damage or destruction, - caused by the fire.
• A list of the chemical agents used in extinguishing the fire. (Water carbon tetrachloride and
carbon monoxide are the most common agents employed
 TYPES OF PYROMANIACS:
• Abnormal Youth – Epileptics, imbeciles, and morons may set fire without knowing the seriousness
of the act.
• The “Hero” Type – a person may set fire on a building, subsequently pretends to discover it, and
turn-in the alarm so that he will appear a “hero” to the public.
• Alcoholics and Drug Addicts – persons who subjected themselves to intense artificial stimulants
such as alcohol or narcotics sometimes develop a strong urge – towards incendiarism.
• Sexual Deviates – some sex perverts derive sexual stimulation from setting a fire and
watching the flame. Frequently, he is a chronic masturbator who stimulates and enhances
his sexual gratification by means of arson.
•
METHOD OF PROOF

• Corpus Delicti – the mere confession of a person with respect to burning – is not a
sufficient proof of guilt unless the corpus delicti has been established.
• In the proof of corpus delicti, the following two-facts must be established.
• Burning – it must be shown that there was a fire. The burning of the property and its location can be
established by the direct testimony of the complaint, fire department personnel, or other eye -
witnesses. Physical evidence in the form of burned parts of the building may also be offered as proof.
• Criminal Design – it must be shown that the fire was willfully set by a person criminally responsible.
This fact can be established by the discovery of – incendiary device, kerosene, or by testimony of
eye-witnesses. It must be shown that the fire is not “accidental”, or by “natural” cause.
 • Other Evidences – after the corpus delicti has been established, any evidence direct or
circumstantial may be introduced to show that the act was committed by the accused
and that it was done with criminal intent.
• Evidence Associating the Suspect with the Scene – clue material such as tools, matches, and
articles of clothing may be found at the scene of the crime and sometimes traced to the
suspect, or the suspect may have carried on his person or clothing – traces which link him to
the scene of the crime.
• Evidence Showing Intent – removal of valuable articles, substitution of inferior articles, ill-
feeling, unfriendly relations between the accused and occupants of the burned building,
absence of effort to extinguish the fire, or to turn the fire alarm may prove intent.