Title Slide

STRUCTURE OF THE EVERYDAY :

The Material Steel

STEEL

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 Steel | The Material Facts
 Steel was first produced in 1738 in Sheffield, England, know as “crucible steel”
in was very pure, but difficult and expensive to produce.
 British Inventor Henry Bessemer produced the first economical steel in 1856.
 Today steel is produced in over 50 countries all across the world.
 To every ton of Portland Cement produced, 3 tons of wood and 10 tons of steel
are produced.
 In 2003, China was the first country to produce more than 200 million tons of crude
steel in a year (more than 20% of the world’s steel is produced in China).
 China is the world’s largest consumer of steel (cars, general industry, construction…)
 The United States and China are the largest importers of steel.
 Japan is the largest exporter of steel.
 Steel is the world’s most recycled material. Steel is recycled mostly from junk cars
(3-400,000 cars per year per steel mill; 27 cars / minute in North America ).
 More than 60% of the steel produced annually is from recycled steel.
 Properties of steel are not altered by how many times it is recycled.
 Per pound of material, steel is the most efficient of all building materials.
 A small amount of steel can do load-carrying tasks with a fraction of the material
needed from other materials such as concrete or wood.
 Steel is the densest of structural materials and therefore handles longer spans,
and produces lighter structures with the greatest economy.
 Steel can be found in fasteners (nails…), structural components, rebar,
sheet-metal, appliances, cars, ships, …

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The Material Steel | THE MATERIAL FACTS
 Steel | Chemical Composition

Wrought Iron Steel Cast Iron

< 0.2 % Carbon 0.2 - 2 % Carbon < 3 - 4 % Carbon
Soft & Malleable + Hard & Brittle
Controlled amounts of:
Manganese, Phosphorous
Silicon, Sulfur, Oxygen
Mild Steel
0.2 - 0.25 % Carbon
Combinations of:
Medium Steel
0.25 - 0.45 % Carbon
Carbon Steel + Chromium, Cobalt, Copper,
Molybdenum, Nickel,
Hard Steel Tungsten, Vanadium
0.45 - 0.85 % Carbon
Alloy Steel
Spring Steel Stainless Steel
0.85 - 1.85 % Carbon Weathering Steel

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The Material Steel | CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
 Steel | Chemical Composition
 Steel is an alloy of Iron, Carbon (<2%), and Manganese (<1%).
It also contains small amounts of Phosphorous, Silicon,
Sulfur and Oxygen

 Carbon Steel these chemical elements are controlled

to provide consistent quality and grade of steel
Carbon content greatly affects the properties of steel
More Carbon increases : strength, hardness, corrosion-resistance
More Carbon decreases : malleability, ductility, and weldability
The amount of Carbon does NOT affect the Modulus of Elasticity (E)
of the Steel


Alloy Steel is Carbon Steel to which one or more chemical
elements have been added to achieve certain physical or chemical
properties
Stainless Steel
Adding 15-18% Chromium and 7-8% Nickel produces
Cor-Ten Steel Sculpture corrosion-resistant steel
By Richard Serra
Museum of Modern Art Weathering Steel (Cor-Ten Steel)
Fort Worth, TX Adding Copper and Phosphorous creates a steel that forms an oxide coating,
rust, that adheres to the base metal and prevents further corrosion

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Module 1 | CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
 Steel | Production
 Iron ore constitutes 5% of earth’s crust, 70% of earth’s core is iron.
 U.S. has roughly 25% of world coal supply.

 Steel is heated to molten state to remove oxides

 Three Types of Production Furnaces:
Open Hearth Furnace (OHF)
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)

 Whether BOF or EAF all steel is recycled back into steel, so although
BOF has a lower % of recycled steel, it is still as environmentally friendly.

 Refining is the addition of alloys to obtain certain characteristics

in the steel:
Molybdenum- strength.
Manganese- resistance to abrasion and impact.
Vanadium- strength and toughness.
Nickel and chromium- toughness, stiffness and corrosion resistance.

 Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) process is environmentally safer.

 Casting: Liquid steel is cast into semi-finished products; billet, blooms

 By 1980s computer controls were prevalent in steel mills.

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The Material Steel | PRODUCTION
 Steel | Structural Properties
 Ductile, absorbs energy

 Steel buildings are light and therefore require

Charles de Gaulle Airport smaller foundations than heavier building materials.
Paris . France
 Steel is a lightweight solution that is
strong enough to allow for longer spans.
 Quick erection.

 Flexibility, Strength, Durability, Functionality.

 Shop Fabrication reduces on-site work down to

the assembly and the erection of frame only.

 Shop Fabrication reduces on-site weather delays.

 Less time on construction site reduces cost.

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The Material Steel | STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
Structural
Properties:
Overview

 Steel is consistent, isotropic and homogenous.

 Density 490 LBS./ FT 3 or 0.25 LB. / IN 3
(concrete: 144 LBS./ FT 3 or 0.08 LB./ IN 3,
wood: 35 - 40 LBS. / FT 3 )
 Steel is capable of precise tolerances and with proper
detailing will provide an exceptionally tight building
envelope.
 Minimum on-site waste.
 Strong and stiff for very little weight.

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The Material Steel | STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
Steel | Terminology

Hot Rolled

Cold Formed

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The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY
Steel | Terminology
Coping

Flange : Bending

Web : Shear

Reduced Beam Section – RBS

(Dogbone)

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The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY
Steel | Terminology
Fabricator

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The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY
Steel | Terminology

Detailer

Camber

Shear Studs

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The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY
Steel | Terminology

Fillet Weld Groove Weld Puddle Weld

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The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY
Steel | Terminology

Cross Bridging Horizontal Bridging

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The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY
Erector

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The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY
 Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel (AESS)
 Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel lends itself naturally
to sustainable building.
 AESS avoids additional finishes and, therefore, saves
the energy which would have been used to produce
and transport those finishes.
 Using steel whenever possible increases the amount
of recyclable content in building.
 Using Bolted connections vs. Welded
makes disassembly / re-use easier.
 The integration of structural and mechanical components
which is facilitated by AESS can save building materials.
Besides being structural, Hollow Steel Sections (HSS)
can also convey hot water and therefore contribute to the
heating or plumbing of the building.
 The finish color used on the AESS system can enhance
reflectance, reducing lighting and thus saving A/C.
 Use of steel and glass atria for natural light (a design
feature common in AESS buildings) can also reduce the
demand for artificial lighting and in turn A/C demand.
 The high visibility of an AESS system demands a very
high level of attention to the detailing of the steel members,
their finishes and their connections.
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The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY
Steel | Profiles in Steel
Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths

Wide Flange W 12 x 50 12 : Nominal depth W 4 – W 44 Bending Beams 3/8”< tf < 2”

50 : Weight / Lin. Ft. 9 #/ft – 30 #/ft Compression Columns 1/4”< tw < 5”

Bearing Piles HP 14 x 102 14 : Nominal depth HP 8 – HP 14 Compression Piles tw = tf < 1”

102 : Weight / Lin.Ft. 36 - 117 #/ft Bearing

American S 15 x 50 15 : Nominal Depth S 3 - S 24 Beams Flanges

Standard 50 : Weight / Lin. Ft. 5.7 - 121 #/ft Bending Columns slope at 2:12
(I-beam)
Not as
stable as
W-shapes

M-Shapes M 14 x 18 14 : Nominal depth M 5-M 14 Bending Beams Smaller

18 : Weight / Lin. Ft. 4.4-18 #/ft Columns members
that are
not W,
HP, S

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The Material Steel | PROFILES IN STEEL
Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths

American C 10 x 30 10: Actual depth C3 - C15

Standard 30: Weight / Lin. Ft. 4.1 - 50 #/ft
Channel

 Tension  Bracing  Nominal

 Compression  Lintels Depth =
 Bending  Stairs
Actual Depth
Miscellaneous MC 13 x 50 13: Actual depth MC 6-18
 Trusses  No torsional
Channels 50: Weight / Lin. Ft. 6.5 - 58 #/ft
strength

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The Material Steel | PROFILES IN STEEL
Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths

Structural Tees: WT 5 x 9.5 5: Nominal depth WT2 - WT18; Compression Bracing Split W -
Cut from W MT 5 x 4.5 9.5, 4.5, 12.7: 4.5 - 179.5 #/ft Tension Trusses shape
Cut from M ST 5 x 12.7 Weight/Linear Ft. Bending Lintels lengthwise
Cut from S MT2.5 – MT7;
2.2 - 9.45 #/ft

ST1.5 – ST12;
2.85 - 60.5 #/ft

Equal L 4 x 4 x 1/2 4 : Leg size L 1 x 1 x 1/8-

Leg Angle ½”: Leg thickness L 8 x 8 x 1 1/8

Compression Bracing t = 1/8” –

Tension Trusses t = 1- 1/8”
Unequal L 6 x 4 x 1/2 6: Long leg L 2 1/2 x 2 x 3/16 Bending Lintels
Leg Angle 4: Short leg - L 9 x 4 x 5/8 Connections
½”: Leg thickness

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The Material Steel | PROFILES IN STEEL
Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths

Square 4 x 4 x 1/2 4” each side 2 x 2 x 3/16 – Compression Columns Stable

½” thickness 8 x 8 x 5/8 Tension Trusses Good in
t: 3/16” - 5/8” Braces Torsion

Rectangular 20 x 12 x 5/8 20” side 3 x 2 x 3/16 – Compression Columns

12” side 20 x 12 x 5/84 Tension Trusses
5/8” thickness t: 3/16” - 5/8” Braces

Pipes  Standard ½” -12” diameter Compression Columns Stable

 Extra Strong 6” Φ Extra ½” -12” diameter Tension Trusses Good in
 Double Extra . Strong 2 ”- 8” diameter Braces Torsion
Strong

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The Material Steel | PROFILES IN STEEL
 Steel | Fire Protection
Objective:

To maintain structural integrity for a specified

period of time to allow the evacuation of
occupants and secure access for firefighters.

 Fire resistance is expressed in units of time it takes

the structural member to reach failure by heating.
 Steel loses its integrity at 500°C (~930°F), and
most of its strength at 600°C (1100°F).
 Lighter steel sections will require more fire protection
than thicker sections since heavier sections will heat
up at a slower rate.

 Steel sections that are in contact with concrete take

longer to heat up than ones without contact.
 The thickness of fire protection material dictates its
fire rating and the protection time it delivers.
 Light gauge steel products heat up very quickly.

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The Material Steel | FIRE PROTECTION
 Most fire protection systems can provide
up to 4 hours (non-combustible) including
intumescent paints.

 Fire protection systems are determined by appearance,

durability, cost, ease of installation, finish quality, surface
preparation needed, and speed of application.

 Steel that is to be fire protected should not be painted or

galvanized in order to adhere straight to the base metal.

 Minimum fire-resistance ratings for primary and

secondary structural members is provided in
Building Codes and is based on Occupancy and
Type of Construction.

 The total area and weight of a building determines

its Building Type.

 Most multi-story steel frames are Type I or

Type II - non combustible.

 Primary structural members include: columns,

beams, girders, trusses and other structural
members directly connected to columns.
Charles de Gaulle Airport
Paris . France
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The Material Steel | FIRE PROTECTION
Material Information Appearance Installation Quality Surface Cost Fire
Preparation (Relative) Rating

SPRAYED Sprayed Fire Resistant Materials (SFRM) | Two Types: Reactive and Non-Reactive

Non-reactive May be used

  Not typically  Easy to cover  Care must be  Applied to  $  Up to
exposed aesthetically complex taken to unpainted 4 hrs.
acceptable in areas/details achieve even steel
Mineral Fiber  Overspray public areas  Must mask
application  1 hr.
per inch
(Dry)  Can be adjacent
& troweled areas increasing
thickness
Cementitious  Very Messy adds
durability
(Wet) but also
 Interferes with weight
other trades
Reactive Provides
  Thin coat  Brush or  Limited fire-  Steel  $$  Up to
insulation by allows steel spray applied. protection preparation to 1 Hr.
expanding and profile to  Easy to cover
duration may be (standard)
providing “char” retain detail necessary $$$
Thin-film and remain detail (around
of low heat pipes, etc.)  Can
Intumescent conductivity aesthetically
pleasing  Easy to repair achieve
Paint 4 Hrs.,
 Kicks in at
 Wet trade
& 200°-250°,  attractive but is
way before decorative  Must have costly
Epoxy Base steel starts finishes are proper
Intumescent to fail available atmosphere  Thicker
Industrial conditions at = more
 Thickness: time of
Application Epoxy Base passes
0.03” – 0.4”  application = more
has course
 Epoxy Base texture  Overspray cost
Up to 1” thick must be
considered

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The Material Steel | FIRE PROTECTION
Material Information Appearance Installation Quality Surface Cost Fire
Preparation (Relative) Rating

Gypsum  Non-reactive  Acceptable  Dry  Uniform  Applied to  $$  Up to

Board (no wet mess) thickness unfinished steel 4 Hrs.
 Clean, boxed assures
appearance  Difficult in the quality  ½” =
can be left small / detailed of the rating 1 hr.
unfinished in areas.
 Typical for
unseen areas columns
 Slower than
or finished less usual
some other
where visible for beams
methods

Blanket  Non-reactive  Unsightly  Dry. No effect  Uniform  Applied to  $  1-2

(needs to be on other thickness unfinished steel Hrs.
Insulation
hidden) trades

Same as  Typical  Applied to

Concrete  Less popular   Unsurpassed  $$$  varies
today with the concrete or construction Durability unfinished steel with
Encasing methods
introduction concrete thick-
of lighter fire block  lost space  Weatherability ness
protection construction due to
materials massiveness
 adds
significant
weight to the
structure

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The Material Steel | FIRE PROTECTION
Additional Fireproofing Methods
 Water and antifreeze for Hollow Steel Section (HSS)
 Metal flame shields.
 Filling HSS with concrete increases their compressive ability while also providing fire protection.
- Plain concrete fill (1-2 hours), steel yields after 20-30 minutes, then concrete
takes over, concrete can only last so long, then cracks and collapses.
- Adding steel fiber to concrete (2-3 hours) helps carry compression loads longer.
- Adding rebar (2-3 hours).

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The Material Steel | FIRE PROTECTION
 Steel | Corrosion Protection
Objective:
To protect structural integrity from the
environmental forces, which act over time,
to deteriorate the individual members of the system.

 Plain steel corrodes quickly in moist environments.

 Corrosion of steel does not occur if relative humidity
<60%; at 70% relative humidity corrosion is accelerated.
 Corrosion (oxidation) is an electrochemical reaction that
oxidizes the iron in steel, commonly called rust.
 This makes the steel look unsightly.
 It eventually makes steel thinner, vulnerable to water infiltration,
it spalls, loses its structural strength, gradually disintegrates,
and ultimately fails.
 When a metal oxidizes, it reverts to its natural, lower energy state.

 Zinc is a less noble metal than steel, but corrodes at a slower rate.

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The Material Steel | CORROSION PROTECTION
Internal Alloying
 Involves altering the composition of the steel alloy to include nickel, chromium and other
corrosion resistant elements.

 This results in stainless steel or weathering steel (weathering steel forms a tight
oxide layer that adheres to the base metal and protects it).

 This method of protection (internal alloying) is more expensive than painting or

metallic coating.

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The Material Steel | CORROSION PROTECTION
Barrier Protection

Paint

 Is a barrier protection system.

 Not impervious to moisture infiltration.
 Scratches and thus loses its protection ability.
 Weather conditions affect application.

Metal Coating: Zinc, Aluminum (anodizing)

 Cheap, easy to apply by dipping (easy to coat
details), maintenance free.
 Barrier protection system that is impermeable.
 Metallic zinc coating has good adhesion to
base metal, abrasion and corrosion resistance.
 Zinc is a reactive material which will eventually
corrode and erode away.

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The Material Steel | CORROSION PROTECTION
 Galvanized protection is proportional to its
thickness and corrosion rate.

 Steel is protected by the sacrificial corrosion

of the zinc layer ( 1/10 the rate of steel
corrosion).

 If scratched, adjacent steel will not corrode.

 Twice the coating thickness will result in twice

the protection.

 Amount of protection also depends on the

environment in which the steel will be used
(industrial atmospheres, marine, soil, near
chemicals…).

 Galvanizing is done in a factory where quality

is consistent and work is independent of the
weather.

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The Material Steel | CORROSION PROTECTION
Surface Preparation and Hot-Dipping:

 Surface preparation is essential for

any barrier protection to be effective.

 Steel surface may be prepared by:

Caustic cleaning - removes organic

contaminants such as dirt, oil, etc
by dipping in a hot alkali solution.
Pickling - removes scale and rust
by dipping in an acid solution.
Fluxing - removes oxides and
prevents further oxidation.

 If surface is not clean, zinc will not

metallurgically react with the steel.

 Unclean areas will come out uncoated

from hot-dip process.

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The Material Steel | CORROSION PROTECTION
 Hot dipping involves complete immersion of
member in 98% molten (840°F) zinc.

 The molten zinc reacts with steel to form a

series of alloy layers.

 Members are entirely coated on all surfaces

including all details.

 Hot-dip galvanizing metallurgically binds the

zinc coating to the base metal and provides
protection from corrosive environments.

 Hot-dip galvanizing of hollow steel sections

(tubes and pipes) will coat both inside and
outside allowing indoor / outdoor use.

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The Material Steel | CORROSION PROTECTION
 Steel | Sustainability
 Steel is the most recycled product in the world.
 Changes in the processes of steel production
have reduced energy demands. The use of
continuous casting eliminates energy demands
for re-heat treatment of steel.
 Steel buildings and other products are
consistently salvaged and recycled.
Concrete is crushed and used as road fill;
rebar is recycled.
 Although steel is locally manufactured, not all
raw ingredients for B.O.F. are locally extracted.

 Four R’s of sustainability:

Reduce, Re-use, Recycle, and Restore.
 Steel producers are constantly striving to reduce
emissions into air and water, and in general to soften
the impact on the world environment.

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The Material Steel | SUSTAINABILITY
 Recycling steel is done for economic reasons in addition to the environmental benefits.

 Most steel products (cars, appliances, bridges, buildings…) have longevity of use and
so there is a shortage of steel to recycle.

 Since the supply of steel for recycling is less than demand, raw materials for B.O.F.
continue to be mined.

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The Material Steel | SUSTAINABILITY
 the end

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The Material Steel | The American Institute of Steel Construction